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ARNES  ^H  ISTORICAL 


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GIFT  OF 
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HELLAS 

OR 

GREECE 

Scale  of  English  Miles 


RUSSELL  &  BTRUTHMS,  ENQ'8  N.Y. 


I'  I' 


BARNES'S     ONE-TERM     SERIES. 


Brief  History 


GREECE; 


READINGS  FROM  PROMINENT  GREEK  HISTORIANS. 


A.     S.     BARNES    &    COMPANY, 

NEW    YORK    AND    CHICAGO. 
1883. 


tidnc.  Dftpt 


Copyright,  1883,  3jy  ^ .  5.  Barnes  &"  Co. 


PREFATORY   NOTE 


THE  first  ninety  pages  of  this  little  book  are  from 
Barnes'  Brief  History  of  Ancient  Peoples,  and 
give  the  Political  History  and  Civilization  of  Greece. 
These  are  followed  by  select  readings  of  Grecian  History, 
which  cover  many  centuries  and  report  a  people  whose 
records  fill  whole  libraries,  whose  literature  still  inspires 
the  world,  and  whose  influence  on  the  thought  and  feel- 
ing of,  the  world  will  endure  for  ages  to  come. 

These  Headings  are  compiled  from  the  best  authors. 
They  give  a  series  of  word-pictures  from  many  painters 
of  history.  It  is  hoped  that  these  specimens  may  lead 
our  readers  to  consult  the  larger  works  of  the  authors 
represented. 

J.  H.  V. 
New  Haven,  Conn., 
July  10, 1883. 


[vi55963 


CONTENTS. 


HISTORY   OF   GREECE. 

PAOB 

The  Political  History 1 

Sparta 7 

Athens 9 

The  Persian  Wars 13 

Age  of  Pericles 23 

Peloponnesian  War 27 

Lacedaemon  and  Theban  Dominion 34 

Macedonian  Empire 36 

Alexander's  Successors 41 

The  Civilization 46 

The  Manners  and  Customs 71 

Scenes  in  Real  Life 80 

Summary 88 

Reading  References 89^ 

Chronology 90 


READmGS  m  GREEK  HISTORY. 

Unity  of  Greece Rawlimon  93 

Argos Rawlinson  94 

Lycurgus Schmitz  94 

Olympic  Games Thirwall  95 

Wars  of  Messenia Schmitz  97 


IV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Cjpselus  and  Periander Cox  100 

Laws  of  Draco &mith  103 

Conspiracy  of  Cylon , Orote  104 

Legislation  of  Solon Fyffe  106 

Last  Days  of  Solon— Pisi  stratus Cox  108 

Hippias  and  Hipparchus Cox  110 

Battle  of  Marathon Fyffe  113 

Battle  of  Thermopylje Ooldsmith  114 

Death  of  Leouidas Cox  117 

The  Battle  of  Salarais Curtius  118 

Themistocles Orote  120 

Battle  of  Plataea Fyffe  122 

Aristides Orote  124 

Cimon.     Wars.     Death  of  Ephialtes Smith  126 

Pericles ...  Cox  129 

Education  of  an  Athenian  Citizen Macaulay  130 

Corinth  and  Corcyra ^ Schmitz  131 

Death  of  Pericles TJdrwall  133 

Alcibiades Cox  134 

The  Sicilian  Expedition 135 

Preparations  for  Invading  Sicily ThirwaU  135 

Mutilation  of  the  Hermae Orote  139 

Fall  of  Athens Oilliea  140 

The  Thirty  Tyrants Thirwall  141 

Life  of  Socrates Cox  143 

Death  of  Socrates Orote  147 

The  Expedition  of  Cyrus Schmitz  150 

Battle  of  Cunaxa Smith  151 

The  March  to  the  Sea Cox  152 

Battle  of  Cnidus Orote  156 

Battle  of  Coronea Orote  157 

The  Battle  of  Leuctra Smith  161 

Battle  of  Cynoscephalae Smith  162 

Death  of  Epaminondas Orote  163 

Characterization  of  Philip Smith  165 

Demosthenes Orote  166 

Last  Days  of  Olynthus Curteis  167 


CONTENTS.  y 

PAGE 

Causes  of  the  Sacred  War 169 

Death  of  Philip Orote  170 

Youth  of  Alexander Orote  172 

Destruction  of  Thebes Cox  174 

Battle  of  the  Granicus Gillies  175 

The  Gordian  Knot Grote  178 

Battle  of  Issus Smith  179 

The  Fall  of  Tyre Thirwall  181 

Battle  of  Arbela Smith  184 

Victory  over  Porus Grote  186 

Death  of  Clitus * Curteis  187 

Death  of  Alexander Grote  188 


GREECE 


By    J.    DOEMAN    STEELE,    Ph.D. 


1.    THE    POLITICAL    HISTORY. 

From  East  to  West. — The  student  of  History  having 
traced  the  beginning  of  civilization  among  the  oldest  peo- 
ples of  antiquity  next  turns  to  Europe.  Its  history,  so  far 
as  we  know,  began  in  Greece.  The  story  of  that  little  penin- 
sula became,  about  the  time  of  the  Persian  wars  (p.  13),  the 
record  of  civilization  and  progress,  to  which  the  history  of 
the  East  is  thenceforth  but  an  occasional  episode. 

The  Difference  between  Eastern  and  Western  Civ- 
ilization is  marked.  The  former  rose  to  a  considerable 
pitch,  but,  fettered  by  despotism,  caste,  and  polygamy,  was 
soon  checked.  The  monarch s  were  absolute,  the  empires 
vast,  and  the  masses  passive.  In  Greece,  on  the  contrary, 
we  find  the  people  astir,  every  power  of  the  mind  in  full 
play,  and  little  states  all  aglow  with  patriotic  ardor.  Assy- 
rian art,  Egyptian  science,  and  the  Phoenician  alphabet  were 
absorbed,  but  only  as  seeds  for  a  new  and  better  growth. 
Much  of  the  life  we  live  to-day,  with  its  political,  social,  and 

Geoffraphicai  Questions.— Bovaxd  Greece.  Name  the  principal  Grecian  states. 
Tlie  principal  Grecian  colonies  (Frontispiece).  Tlie  chief  islands  iu  the  ^gean  Sea. 
Locate  the  Peloponnesus.  Arcadia.  Where  was  Ionia  ?  .^olis  ?  Athens  ?  Sparta  ? 
Thebes  ?  Argos  ?  Corinth  ?  Delphi  ?  Marathon  ?  Plataea  ?  The  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae  ?  Ilium  ?  The  Hellespont  ?  The  isle  of  Rhodes  ?  Mount  Parnassus  ? 
Vale  of  Tempe  ?  Mount  Ossa  ?  Mount  Pelion  ?  Salamis  Island  ?  Syracuse  ?  Magna 
Graecia  ?    Chaeronea? 


a  GREECE. 

inteHecfcual  a dv&tages ;  its  music,  painting,  oratory,  and 
l^^'^s^ijilpt^r^! ;  its  thirst  for  knowledge,  and  its  free  institutions, 
was  kindled  on  tlie  shores  of  the  -^gean  Sea,  was  transmitted 
by  the  Greek  to  the  Roman,  by  him  to  the  Teuton,  and  so 
handed  down  to  us. 

The  Geographical  Features  of  Greece  had  much  to 
do  with  fixing  the  character  of  its  inhabitants.  The  coast 
was  indented,  like  no  other,  with  bays  having  bold  promon- 
tories reaching  far  out  to  sea,  and  forming  excellent  harbors. 
Nature  thus  afforded  every  inducement  to  a  seafaring  life. 
In  striking  contrast  to  the  vast  alluvial  plains  of  the  Nile 
and  the  Euphrates,  the  land  was  cut  up  by  almost  impassable 
mountain  ranges,  isolating  each  little  valley,  and  causing  it 
to  develop  its  peculiar  life.  A  great  variety  of  soil  and 
climate  also  tended  to  produce  a  versatile  people. 

The  Early  Inhabitants  were  our  Aryan  kinsfolk,  and 
the  Pelasgians,*  a  simple,  agricultural  people,  were  the  first 
to  settle  the  country,  Next,  the  Helle'nes,  a  warlike  race, 
conquered  the  land.  The  two  blended  and  gave  rise  to  the 
•  Grecian  language  and  civilization,  as  did,  in  later  times,  the 
iNorman  and  Anglo-Saxon  to  the  English. 

Hellas  and  Hellenes. — The  Greeks  did  not  use  the 
name  by  which  we  know  them,  but  called  their  country 
Hellas  and  themselves  Hellenes.  Even  the  settlements  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  isles  of  the  -^gean  and  Mediter- 
ranean, were  what  Freeman  happily  styles  "patches  of 
Hellas."  All  those  nations  whose  speech  they  could  not 
understand  they  called  Barbarians. 

Grecian  Unity. — The  different  Grecian  states,  though 
always  jealous  and  often  fighting,  yet  had  much  in  common. 


*  Bemains  of  the  Pelasgian  architecture  still  survive.  They  are  rude,  massive 
stone  structures.  The  ancients  considered  them  the  work  of  the  Cyclops— a  fabulous 
race  of  giants,  who  had  a  single  eye  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  3 

All  spoke  the  same  language,  though  there  were  several  dia- 
lects. They  had  many  common  customs,  and  a  common 
inheritance  in  the  poems  of  Homer  (p.  50)  and  the  glory 
of  the  Hellenic  name.  There  were,  moreover,  two  great 
''holding-points"  for  all  the  Greeks.  One  was  the  half- 
yearly  meeting  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council,*  and  the 
other  the  national  games  or  festivals  (p.  74).  All  Hellenes 
took  part  in  the  latter,  and  thus  the  colonies  were  united  to 
the  parent  state.  The  Grecian  calendar  itself  was  based  on 
the  quadrennial  gathering  at  Olympia,  the  First  Olympiad 
dating  from  776  B.  c.f 

Legendary  History. — The  early  records  of  Greece  are 
mythical.  It  is  not  worth  the  effort  to  pick  out  the  kernels 
of  truth  around  which  these  romantic  legends  grew.  They 
chronicle  the  achievements  of  the  Heroic  Age  of  the  poets. 
Then  occurred  the  Argonautic  Expedition  in  search  of  the 
Golden  Fleece,  the  Twelve  Labors  of  Hercules,  the  Siege  of 
"Troy  divine,"  the  Hunt  of  the  Caledonian  Boar,  and  the 
exploits  of  heroes  whose  adventures  have  been  familiar  to 
each  succeeding  age,  and  are  to-day  studied  by  the  youth  of 
every  civilized  land.  J 

*  In  early  times  twelve  tribes  in  the  north  agreed  to  celebrate  sacrifices  together 
twice  a  year,  in  the  spring  to  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  in  the  autumn  to  Ceres  at  An- 
thela,  near  Thermopylae.  Their  deputies  were  called  the  Amphictyonic  Council 
(council  of  the  neighbors  or  co-religionists),  and  the  meetings  from  being,  at  first, 
purely  religious  became  great  centers  of  political  influence.  The  temple  at  Delphi 
belonged  to  all  the  states,  and  the  Delphic  oracle  attained  celebrity,  not  only  among 
the  Greeks  bat  also  among  foreign  nations. 

t  This  was  twenty-nine  years  before  the  era  of  Nabonasser,  and  half  a  century 
before  the  Captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes  by  Sargon. 

X  Thus  read  the  legends:  (1.)  Jason,  a  prince  of  Thessaly,  sailed  with  a  band  of 
adventurers  in  the  good  ship  Argo.  The  Argonauts  went  through  the  Dardanelles, 
past  the  present  site  of  Constantinople,  to  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Euxine  sea.  Jason 
there  planted  a  colony,  took  away  the  famous  Golden  Fleece,  carried  off  the  beautiful 
princess  Medea,  and  returned  to  Thessaly  in  triumph.  (2.)  Hercules  was  the  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Alcmena.  Juno,  Queen  of  Heaven,  sent  two  serpents  to  strangle  him 
in  his  cradle,  but  the  precocious  infant  killed  them  both  and  escaped  unharmed. 
Afterward  his  half  brother,  Eurystheus,  imposed  upon  him  twelve  difficult  under- 
takings, all  of  which  he  successfully  accomplished.    (3.)  Soon  after  the  return  of  the 


4  GREECE. 

Grecian  Governments. — In  legendary  times,  as  we  learn 
from  the  Iliad,  each  little  city  or  district  had  its  hereditary 
king,  supposed  to  be  descended  from  the  gods.  He  was  ad- 
vised by  the  Council  of  the  Elders  and  the  AsseynUy,  the 
latter  being  a  mass  meeting,  where  all  the  citizens  gathered 


THE  DEPARTURE  OF  ACHILLES  (fROM   AN   ANCIENT   VASE). 


Argonautic  expedition  several  of  the  Grecian  warriors— Meleager,  Theseus,  and 
others— joined  in  an  ^olian  war,  which  the  poets  termed  the  *^Hunt  of  the  Caledonian 
Boar.''^  iEnens,  king  of  Calydon,  father  of  Meleager,  having  neglected  to  pay 
homage  to  Diana,  that  goddess  sent  a  wild  boar,  which  was  impervious  to  the  spears 
of  ordinary  huntsmen,  to  lay  waste  his  country.  AH  the  princes  of  the  age  assembled 
to  hunt  him  down,  and  he  was  at  last  killed  by  the  spear  of  Meleager.  (4.)  The  story 
of  the  Siege  of  Troy  is  the  subject  of  Homer's  Iliad.  Venus  had  promised  Pans,  son 
of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  that  if  he  would  pronounce  her  the  most  beautiftiJ  of  the 
goddesses,  he  should  have  for  wife  the  handsomest  woman  of  his  time,  Helen,  wife 
of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta.  Paris  granted  the  boon,  and  then  going  to  Sparta 
carried  off  Helen  to  Troy.    Menelaus,  smarting  under  this  wrong,  appealed  to  the 

Grecian  princes  for  help.  They  assembled 
tinder  his  brother  Agamemnon,  king  of  My- 
cenae. One  hundred  thousand  men  sailed  away 
in  eleven  hundred  and  eighty-six  ships  across 
the  Eg6an,  and  invested  Troy.  The  siege 
lasted  ten  years.  Hector  "  of  ^  the  beamy 
helm,"  son  of  Priam,  was  the  bravest  leader 
of  the  Trojans.  Achilles,  the  first  of  Grecian 
warriors,  slew  him  in  single  combat,  and 
dragged  his  body  at  his  chariot-wheels  in  in- 
solent triumph  around  the  walls  of  the  city. 
But  the  "lion-hearted"  Achilles  fell  in  turn, 
•'  for  EC  the  fates  had  decreed."  Troy  was  finally  taken  by  stratagem.  The  Greeks 
feigned $6  retire,  leaving  behind  them  as  an  offering  to  Minerva,  a  great  wooden  horse. 
This  vyas  reported  to  be  purposely  of  such  vast  bulk,  in  oider  to  prevent  the  Trojans 
from  taking  it  into  the  city,  as  that  would  be  fatal  to  the  Grecian  cause.   The  deluded 


PROW  OF  AN  EARLY  GREEK  SHIP. 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  5 

to  express  their  views  upon  political  *  affairs.  The  power 
of  the  kings  gradually  diminished  until  most  of  the  cities 
became  republics,  or  commonwealths.  In  some  cases  the 
authority  was  held  by  a  few  distinguished  and  ancient 
families.  If  good,  it  was  styled  an  aristocracy  {aristos, 
best) ;  but  if  bad,  an  oligarchy  (oligos,  few).  In  a  democracy, 
any  citizen  could  hold  office  and  vote  in  the  assembly.  At 
Sparta  there  were  always  two  kings,  although  in  time  they 
lost  most  of  their  power. 

The  Dorian  Migration  was  one  of  the  first  clearly- 
defined  events  of  Grecian  histoiy.  After  the  Trojan  war 
the  ties  which  had  temporarily  held  the  princes  together 
were  loosed,  and  a  general  shifting  of  the  tribes  ensued. 
The  Dorians — a  brave,  hardy  race — descended  from  the 
mountains,  and  moved  south  in  search  of  homes,  f  They 
conquered  the  Achaeans  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  occupied 
the  chief  cities — Argos,  Corinth,  and  Sparta.  (About  the 
eleventh  century  b.  c.) 

Grecian  Colonies. — Hellas  was  greatly  extended  in  con- 
sequence of  these  changes.  A  part  of  the  Achaeans  fled 
northward,  dispossessing  the  lonians,  many  of  whom  emi- 
grated to  Asia  Minor,  where  they  founded  the  Io}iic  colonies, 
among*which  were  Ephesus  {Acts  xix.  1 ;  xx.  15)  and  Mile'- 


inhabitants  fell  into  the  snare,  and  eagerly  dragged  the  unwieldy  monster  within  their 
walls.  That  night  a  body  of  men  concealed  in  the  horse  crept  out,  threw  open  the 
gates  and  admitted  the  Grecians,  who  had  quietly  returned.  From  the  terrible  mas- 
sacre which  ensued,  .^n^as,  a  famous  Trojan  chief,  escaped  with  a  few  followers. 
His  subsequent  adventures  form  the  theme  of  Virgil's  yEneid,  the  famous  Latin 
poem.  Homer's  Odyssey  tells  the  wanderings  of  the  crafty  Ulysses,  king  of  Ithaca, 
during  his  journey  home  from  Troy,  and  the  trials  of  his  faithful  wife  Penelope 
during  his  absence. 

*  It  is  curious  that  the  word  "  politics  "  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  city, 
and  meant  in  its  original  form  only  the  affairs  of  the  city.  The  Hellenes,  unlike 
most  other  Aryans  (.except  the  Italians,  who  were  of  the  same  swarm),  from  tiie  very 
first  gathered  in  cities. 

t  This  event  is  known  in  Grecian  history  as  "  The  Return  of  the  Heraclei'dae. 
The  Dorians  were  induced  by  the  descendants  of  Hercules  to  support  their  claim  to 
the  throne  of  Argos,  whence  their  ancestor  had  been  driven  by  the  family  of  Pelops. 


6  GKEECE. 

tus.  Similarly,  the  ^olians  had  already  founded  the  ^oUc 
colonies.  Finally  the  Dorians  were  tempted  to  cross  the  sea 
and  establish  the  Doric  colonies^  chief  of  which  was  Rhodes 
(map  opposite).  In  subsequent  times  of  strife  many  Greek 
citizens  gi-ew  discontented,  and  left  their  homes  to  try  their 
fortune  in  new  lands.  The  colonial  cities  also  soon  became 
strong  enough  to  plant  new  settlements.  Every  opportunity 
to  extend  their  commerce  or  political  influence  was  eagerly 
seized  by  these  energetic  explorers.  In  the  palmy  days  of 
Greece,  the  Euxine  and  the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Marmora) 
were  fringed  with  Hellenic  towns.  The  Ionian  cities,  at  the 
time  of  the  Persian  conquest  (p.  12),  "  extended  ninety  miles 
along  the  coast  in  an  almost  uninterrupted  line  of  magnificent 
quays,  warehouses,  and  dwellings."  On  the  African  shore 
was  the  rich  Gyrene,  the  capital  of  a  prosperous  state.  Sicily, 
with  her  beautiful  city  of  Syracuse,  was  like  a  Grecian  island. 
Southern  Italy  was  long  called  Magna  Graecia  (Great  Greece). 
The  Phoenicians,  the  seamen  and  traders  of  these  times, 
almost  lost  the  commerce  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean.  On 
the  western  coast,  the  Greeks  possessed  the  flourishing  colony 
of  Massilia  (Marseilles),  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  rising 
power  of  Carthage  would  have  secured  nearly  the  entire 
shore,  and  transformed  the  Mediterranean  into  a  "  Grecian 
lake." 

"Wherever  the  Greek  went,  he  remained  a  Greek.  He 
carried  with  him  into  barbarian  lands  the  Hellenic  language, 
manners,  and  civilization.  In  the  colonies  the  natives  learned 
the  Grecian  tongue,  and  took  on  the  Grecian  mode  of  thought 
and  worship.  Moreover,  the  transplanted  Greek  matured 
faster  than  the  home-growth.  So  it  happened  that  in  the 
magnificent  cities  which  grew  up  in  Asia  Minor,  philosophy, 
letters,  the  arts  and  sciences,  bloomed  even  sooner  than  in 
Greece  itself. 


■E  d  0  LEMNOS 


ope  8. 

X^NOROS  I. 
B     jk  ^  lACARIA  if^ 

«■*  1  e  g^  8 

^  V  W-^NAXOS 


8ERIPH0S  I.    %L       ^/ 

8IPHN0S  1.^     *l\  \.    ^(r^r  ^ 

^■^  >fi  c  e  » 

TMERA  ir^ 


HEJLLAS  or  GREECE. 

IN  THE  HEROIC  AGE 


HELLAS  or  GREECE, 

AFTER  THE  DORIC  MIGRATION. 

I        l/Colians     1 i  lonians 

I        I  Achaeans    EZZU  Dorians 


1I.WEULS,  OEU 


SumZJ  i  StTMt)ur;£nf^  t,X_,  T. 


f-    i    l;5,    (.   '.,    1.,/     ;, 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  7 

Sparta  and  Athens. — The  Dorians  and  the  lonians 
came  to  be  the  leading  races  in  Greece.  Their  diverse 
characteristics  had  a  great  influence  on  its  history.  The 
Dorians  were  rough  and  plain  in  their  habits,  sticklers  for 
the  old  customs,  friends  of  an  aristocracy,  and  bitter  ene- 
mies of  trade  and  the  fine  arts.  The  lonians,  on  the  other 
liand,  were  refined  in  their  tastes,  fond  of  change,  demo- 
cratic, commercial,  and  passionate  lovers  of  music,  painting, 
and  sculpture.  The  rival  cities,  Sparta  and  Athens,  repre- 
sented these  opposing  traits.  Their  deep-rooted  hatred  was 
the  cause  of  numerous  wars  which  convulsed  the  country. 
For,  in  the  sequel,  we  shall  find  that  the  Grecians  spent 
their  best  blood  in  fighting  among  themselves,  and  Grecian 
history  is  mostly  occupied  with  the  doings  of  these  two 
cities. 

SPAETA. 

Early  History. — One  of  the  Dorian  bands  occupied 
Lacedaemon,  called  also  Sparta  from  its  grain  fields  [sparte, 
sown  land).  The  former  owners  (termed  pericelci,  dwellers- 
around)  were  allowed  to  keep  the  poorest  of  the  lands,  and 
to  be  tradesmen  and  mechanics.  But  they  could  neither 
have  voice  in  the  government  nor  intermarry  with  their 
Dorian  conquerors,  who  now  came  to  be  called  Spartans. 
The  latter  took  the  best  farms,  and  compelled  their  slaves 
(helots)  to  work  them.  The  helots  were  captives  or  rebels, 
and  were  at  first  few,  but  in  the  succeeding  wars  rapidly 
increased.  The  Spartans  (only  nine  thousand  strong  in  the 
time  of  Lycurgus),  planted  thus  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile 
population,  were  forced  to  live  like  soldiers  on  guard. 

In  the  rest  of  the  Peloponnesus  the  Dorians  betook 
themselves    to    peaceful    pursuits    and  mingled  with   the 


8  GREECE.  [850  B.C. 

natives.  But  in  Sparta  there  was  no  relaxation,  no  blending. 
The  Dorians  there  kept  on  their  cold,  cruel  way.  They 
were  constantly  quarreling  among  themselves,  and  so  little 
gain  did  they  make  that  two  and  a  half  centuries  passed  and 
the  Achagans  were  still  fortified  only  little  over  two  miles 
away  from  Sparta. 

Lycurgus  (850  b.o.),  a  member  of  the  royal  family, 
finally  crystallized  into  a  constitution  all  the  peculiarities 
of  the  Spartan  character.  His  whole  aim  was  to  make  the 
Spartans  a  race  of  soldiers.  Trade  and  travel  were  pro- 
hibited. No  money  was  allowed  except  cumbrous  iron  coins, 
which  no  foreigner  would  take.  Most  property,  as  slaves, 
horses,  dogs,  etc.,  was  held  in  common.  Boys  were  removed 
from  home  at  the  age  of  seven,  and  educated  by  state  officers. 
The  men  ate  at  public  tables,  slept  in  barracks,  and  could 
visit  their  homes  only  occasionally.*  Private  life  was  given 
up  for  the  good  of  the  state  and  devoted  to  military  drill. 

The  two  kings  were  retained  "5  but  their  power  was  limited 
by  a  senate  of  twenty-eight  men  over  sixty  years  old,  and  an 
assembly  of  all  the  citizens.  Five  epliors  (overseers)  were 
chosen  annually  by  the  assembly,  and  these  were  the  real 
rulers.  No  popular  discussion  was  allowed,  nor  could  a 
private  citizen  speak  in  the  assembly  without  special  leave 
from  a  magistrate.  Thus  the  government  became  in  fact 
an  oligarchy  under  the  guise  of  a  monarchy.  The  people 
having  promised  to  live  under  this  'constitution  until  he 
should  return,  Lycurgus  left  Sparta  and  was  never  heard  of 
again. 

The  Supremacy  of  Sparta  dates  from  this  time.  **  A 
mere  garrison  in  a  hostile  country,  she  became  the  mistress 

*  Agis,  a  man  of  high  rank,  on  his  return  ft-om  a  long  and  triumphant  expedition, 
ventured  to  send  for  his  broth,  that  he  might  eat  his  first  meal  at  home  vrtth  his  wife^ 
This  foolish  show  of  sentiment  was  punished  by  a  heavy  fine. 


743-668B.C.]      THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  9 

of  Laconia."  The  conquest  of  Messenia  in  two  long,  bloody 
wars,  made  her  dominant  in  the  Peloponnesus.  This  was 
preceded  and  followed  by  several  minor  wars,  all  tending 
to  increase  her  territory  and  establish  her  authority  over  her 
neighbors.  At  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  b.  c.  the 
Spartans  were  ready  to  assert  their  position  as  the  leaders  in 
Grecian  affairs,  and  had  already  repeatedly  carried  their 
arms  across  the  Isthmus  into  Attica,  when,  at  this  juncture, 
all  Greece  was  threatened  by  the  Persian  forces  (p.  12). 


ATHENS. 

Early  History. — Athens,  like  the  other  Grecian  cities, 
was  governed  for  a  time  by  kings.  Cecrops,  the  first  ruler, 
according  to  the  legends,  taught  the 
people  of  Attica  navigation,  marriage, 
and  the  culture  of  the  olive.  Codrus, 
the  last  monarch,  fell  (1050  b.  c.)  while 
resisting  the  Dorians.  After  his  death 
the  nobles  selected  one  of  the  royal 
family,  as  archon  or  chief.  At  first  the 
archon  ruled  for  life;  afterward  the 
term  was  shortened  to  ten  years,  and 
finally  to  one,  the  nobles  choosing  nine 
archons  from  their  own  number.  Thus 
Athens  became  an  aristocratic  republic. 

Draco   (624  B.C.).— But  the  demo- 
cratic spirit  was  rife.     The  people  com- 
plained that  they  got  no  justice  from 
the  nobles,  and  the   demand  for  ivritten  laius  became  so 
urgent  that  Draco  was  directed  to  prepare  a  code.     His  laws 
were  so  merciless  that  they  were  said  to  have  been  written 


COIN   OF  ATHENS, 


10 


GREECE. 


B.C. 


SOLON'S  TABLETS. 


in  blood,  every  offence  being  punished  with  death.  To  avoid 
the  popular  indignation,  Draco  fled,  and  his  name  is  to  this 
day  synonymous  with  cruelty. 

Solon*  (594  B.C.).— Party  strife  now  prevailed.  The 
state  being  threatened  with  anarchy,  Solon  was  appointed  to 
draft  a  new  constitution.  He  repealed  the  harsh  edicts  of 
Draco  ;  relieved  those  who  were  in  debt ;  f  bought  the  free- 
dom of  many  who  had 
been  sold  as  slaves ; 
forbade  parents  to  sell 
or  pawn  their  children; 
ordered  every  parent 
to  teach  his  sons  a 
trade ;  and  required 
sons  to  support  their 
father  in  old  age,  provided  he  had  given  them  an  education. 
His  plan  was  to  weaken  the  nobles  and  to  strengthen  the 
people.  He  therefore  gave  every  free-born  native  of  Attica 
a  vote  in  the  assembly,  where  laws  were  enacted,  archons 
elected,  and  officers  held  accountable  for  their  conduct. 

Property,  instead  of  birth,  now  gave  rank.  The  people 
were  divided  into  four  classes  according  to  their  income. 
Only  the  three  richest  classes  could  hold  office,  but  they 
had  to  pay  the  taxes  and  to  equip  themselves  as  soldiers. 
The  wealthiest  could  serve  as  archons,  while  only  those  who 
had  held  that  office  were  eligible  to  the  ancient  Court  of 
Areopagus.  J    This  court  repealed  laws  which  were  hurtful 

*  This  famous  Athenian  lawgiver  was  descended  from  the  ancient  kings,  but 
poverty  forced  him  to  earn  his  livelihood.  Gaining  a  fortune  by  commerce  he  retired 
f\-om  business.  He  then,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  scholars  of  that  day,  traveled 
to  the  East  in  search  of  knowledge.  Such  was  his  sagacity  and  judgment  that  he  was 
reckoned  one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece. 

t  In  that  age  a  man  unable  lo  pay  his  debts  was  liable  to  be  sold  into  slavery. 
See  Nehemiah  v.  3.  5 ;  2  Kings  iv.  1.  The  punishments  in  early  times  were  all  severe. 
Bead  Matt.  v.  38. 

X  So  called  because  the  meetings  were  held  on  the  hill  known  by  that  name 
{Acts  xvii.  19). 


560B.C.]  THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  11 

to  the  state,  looked  after  the  morals  of  the  people,  and  re- 
buked any  person  who  lived  unworthy  of  an  Athenian,  or 
who  was  not  properly  bringing  up  his  children.  A  senate  of 
four  hundred,  selected  annually  by  lot,  was  to  prepare  the 
business  presented  in  the  assembly. 

Tyrants.* — Athens  prospered  under  Solon's  wise  manage- 
ment. The  people  got  their  rights.  The  mortgage-pillars  f 
disappeared.  But  moderate  measures,  as  is  often  the  case, 
pleased  neither  extreme  of  society.  Local  factions  strove 
for  power.  One  day  Pisis' trains,  a  noble  aspiring  to  office, 
rushed,  besmeared  with  blood,  into  the  market-place,  and, 
pointing  to  his  self-inflicted  wounds,  asked  for  a  guard, 
pretending  that  the  other  nobles  had  attacked  him  because 
he  was  a  friend  of  the  people.  J  This  request  being 
granted,  ere  long  he  seized  the  Acropolis  and  became  the 
first  tyrant  of  Athens.  His  rule,  however,  was  so  beneficent 
that  one  would  fain  forget  how  craftily  he  secured  his  place. 
He  established  Solon's  laws,  erected  beautiful  public  build- 
ings, encouraged  art,  founded  the  first  library,  and  collected 
and  published  the  scattered  ballads  of  Homer. 

The  tyrant's  sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  trod  in  his 
steps.  But  the  latter  having  been  assassinated,  the  brother 
became  moody  and  cruel.  His  enemies,  led  by  the  Alcmaeo- 
nidae,  §  bribed  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  so  that  when  the  Lace- 

*  The  Greeks  applied  this  name  at  first  to  a  person  who  became  king  in  a  city 
where  the  law  did  not  authorize  one.  Afterward  the  Tyrants  became  cruel,  and  tho 
word  took  on  the  meaning  which  we  now  give  it. 

t  It  was  customary  among  the  Greeks,  when  a  farm  was  given  as  security  for  the 
payment  of  money,  to  set  up  a  stone  pillar  at  the  comer  with  the  sum  loaned  and 
the  name  of  the  lender  engraved  upon  it. 

X  Solon  detected  the  sham  and  with  bitter  wit  declared,  "  You  are  but  a  bad  imi- 
tation of  Ulysses.  He  wounded  himself  to  delude  his  enemies  ;  you  to  deceive  your 
countrymen." 

§  This  name  came  into  prominence  in  the  following  way:  At  the  time  Draco's 
etern  laws  aroused  so  much  feeling,  a  noble  named  Cylon  attempted  to  make  himself 
tyrant.  He  seized  the  Acropolis  but  was  defeated,  and  his  followers,  half  dead  with 
hunger,  were  forced  to  take  refuge  at  the  altars  of  the  gods.    The  archon  MegScles 


12  GREECE.  [510  B.C. 

daemonians  consulted  the  priestess,  they  received  the  reply, 
**  Athens  must  be  freed."  The  Spartans  accordingly  invaded 
Attica  and  drove  away  the  tyrant  (510  b.  c).  Hippias  went 
over  to  the  Persian  court,  and  was  henceforth  the  declared 
enemy  of  his  native  city.     We  shall  hear  from  him  again. 

Democracy  Established.— It  turned  out,  however,  that 
aristocratic  Sparta  had  only  paved  the  way  for  a  republic. 
For  Cleis'thenes,  an  Athenian  noble,  the  head  of  the  Alcmae- 
onidae  but  now  the  candidate  of  the  people's  party,  became 
archon.  All  freemen  of  Attica  were  admitted  to  citizenship. 
In  order  to  break  up  the  four  old  tribes,  and  prevent  the 
nobles  from  raising  parties  among  the  people  of  their  clans, 
or  according  to  local  interests,  he  divided  the  country  into 
districts,  and  organized  ten  new  tribes  by  uniting  non- 
adjacent  districts.  Each  tribe  sent  fifty  representatives  to 
the  senate,  and  also  chose  a  strategus  or  general,  the  ten 
generals  to  command  the  army  in  daily  turn. 

The  triumph  of  democracy  was  complete.  Four  times  a 
month  all  Athens  met  to  deliberate  and  decide  upon  public 
questions.  "The  Athenians  then,"  says  Herodotus,  "grew 
mighty,  and  it  became  plain  that  liberty  is  a  brave  thing." 

It  was  now  near  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  b.  c. 
Both  Sparta  and  Athens  had  risen  to  power,  ■w:hen  all  Greece 
was  threatened  by  a  new  foe.  The  young  civilization  of  the 
West  was,  for  the  first  time,  called  to  meet  the  old  civiliza- 
tion of  the  East.  In  the  presence  of  a  common  danger  the 
warring  states  united.  The  next  twenty  years  were  stirring 
ones  in  the  annals  of  freedom. 

induced  them  to  surrender  on  the  promise  of  their  lives.  Scarcely,  however,  had 
they  left  the  altars  than  his  soldiers  cut  them  down.  Soon  after,  a  plague  broke  out, 
■which  was  considered  a  judgment  of  the  gods  for  this  impious  act.  The  Athenians, 
believing  that  a  curse  had  thus  fallen  on  their  city,  finally  forced  the  Alcmceonidce 
(the  clan  of  Megacles)  into  exile,  and  called  Epimenides,  a  prophet  of  Crete,  to 
atone  for  and  purify  the  city.  .  The  Alcmseonidse  were  wealthy,  and  to  make  amends 
for  their  impiety  they  undertook  to  rebuild  the  temple  at  Delphi,  which  had  been 
burnt  down.  The  contract  called  for  common  stone,  but  they  faced  the  building  with 
fine  marble,  thus  gaining  the  favor  of  the  Delphic  oracle. 


500  B.  c] 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY. 


13 


THE    PERSIAjST    WARS. 

Cause. — The  Persian  empire  now  reached  the  borders  of 
Thessaly.  The  Grecian  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  Cyrus;  and  the  conquering  armies  of 
Darius  were  already  threatening  the  freedom  of  Greece  it- 
self, when  an  act  of  Athens  hastened  the  struggle.     The 


GREECE, 

TIME  OF  THE  PERSIAN  WARS 


GREECE  IN   TIME   OF  THE   PERSIAN   WARS. 


Ionian  cities  having  tried  to  throw  off  the  Persian  yoke,  the 
mother  city  sent  them  aid.*  The  Great  King  subdued  the 
Ionic  revolt,  and  then  turned  to  punish  the  haughty  foreign- 
ers who  had  dared  to  meddle  in  the  affairs  of  his  empire, 

*  Dnring  the  brief  campaign  of  the  Athenians  in  Asia  Minor,  Sardis,  the  capital 
of  Lydia,  was  accidentally  burned.  When  Darius  received  this  news  he  took  a  bow 
and  shot  an  arrow  to  the  sky,  with  a  prayer  to  Ahura  Mazda  for  help ;  and  that  he 
might  not  forget  the  insult  he  ordered  that,  at  dinner  each  day,  a  servant  should  call 
out  thrice,  "  Master,  remember  the  Athenians." 


14 


GEEECE, 


[493  B.C. 


and  also  to  force  the  Athenians  to  receive  back  Hippias 
(p.  12)  as  their  tyrant. 

The  First  Expedition  (493  B.C.)  against  Greece  was 
sent  out  under  Mardonius,  the  son-in-law  of  Darius.  The 
land  troops  were  defeated  in  Thrace,  and  the  fleet  was  shat- 
tered while  rounding  Mount  Athos.  Mardonius  returned 
without  having  set  foot  into  the  region  he  went  to  conquer. 

Second  Expedition. — Darius,  full  of  fury,  began  at  once 
raising  a  new  army.  Meanwhile  heralds  were  dispatched 
to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  Grecian  cities.  Many  sent 
back  earth  and  water,  the  oriental  symbols  of  vassalage ; 
Sparta  and  Athens  refused,  the  former  throwing  the  envoys 
into  a  deep  well,  bidding  them  find  there  the  tokens  of  sub- 
mission. 

Battle  of  Marathon  (490  b.  c). — This  time  the  Persian 
fleet  of  six  hundred  triremes  safely  crossed  the  ^gean,  and 
landed  a  large  army  on  the  famous  field  of  Marathon,  only 

twenty-two  miles   from 


Athens.  Miltiades  (to 
whom  the  other  strategi 
had  surrendered  their 
days  of  command)  went 
out  to  meet  them  with 
but  ten  thousand  sol- 
diers. The  usual  prayers 
and  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered, but  it  was  late  in 
the  day  ere  the  auspices 
became  favorable  so  that  he  dared  hazard  an  attack.  Finding 
that  the  Persians  had  placed  their  best  troops  at  the  center, 
Miltiades  put  opposite  them  a  weak  line  of  men,  and 
stationed  heavy  files  of  his  choicest  soldiers  on  the  wings. 
Giving  the  enemy  no  time  to  hurl  their  javelins,  he  imme- 


...;r;^-%to. 


PLAIN  OF   MARATHON 


MAP   OF  THE   PLAINS  OF  MARATHON. 


490B.C.] 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY 


15 


VIEW   OF  THE   PLAINS   OF   MARATHON. 


diately  charged  at  full  speed, 
and  came  at  once  to  a  hand- 
to-hand  fight.  The  strong 
wings  swept  all  before  them, 
and  then,  wheeling,  fell  upon 
both  flanks  of  the  victorious 

Persian  center.     In  a  few  moments  the  Asiatic  host  were 
wildly  fleeing  to  their  ships.* 


*  The  Spartans  had  promised  aid,  but  from  religious  scruples  the  troops  were 
unwilling  to  march  until  the  full  moon,  and  so  did  not  arrive  till  after  the  battle,  A 
thousand  men  from  Plataea— all  the  little  city  had— stood  by  the  side  of  the  Athenians 
on  that  memorable  day.  When  the  victory  was  won,  Phidippides,  the  swiftest  run- 
ner in  Greece,  ran  with  the  tidings,  and,  reaching  Athens,  had  breath  only  to  tell  the 
news  when  he  fell  dead  in  the  street.  Seven  of  the  Persian  vessels  were  captured  by 
the  pursuing  Greelcs.  The  brother  of  JSschylus.  the  poet,  is  said  to  have  caught  a 
trireme  by  the  stern,  and  to  have  held  it  until  his  hand  was  hacked  off  by  the  enemy. 
Hardly  had  the  Persians  and  Athenians  separated  from  the  last  conflict  on  the  beach 
when  the  attention  of  both  was  arrested  by  a  flash  of  light  on  the  summit  of  Mount 
Pentelicus.  It  was  the  reflection  of  the  setting  sun  on  the  glittering  surface  of  an 
uplifted  shield.  Miltiades  at  once  saw  in  this  a  signal  from  the  traitors  in  Athens 
inviting  the  fleet  to  join  them  before  he  returned.  Not  a  moment  was  to  be  lost,  an;l 
he  ordered  an  instant  march  to  the  city.  When  the  Persian  ships  arrived  they  found 
the  heroes  of  Marathon  drawn  up  on  the  beach  awaiting  them. 


16  GREECE.  [490  B.C. 

The  effect*  of  this  victory  was  to  render  the  reputation 
of  Athens  for  valor  and  patriotism  equal,  if  not  superior,  to 
that  of  Sparta.  The  Persian  invasion  made  a  union  of  the 
Hellenic  states  possible,  and  Marathon  decided  that  Athens 
should  be  the  leader. 

Greece  was  saved,  and  her  deliverer,  Miltiades,  was  for  a 
time  the  favorite  hero,  but  a  disgraceful  expedition  to  the 
isle  of  Paros  cost  him  his  popularity,  and  soon  after  his 
return  he  died. 

Themistocles  and  Aristi'des,  generals  associated  with 
Miltiades  at  Marathon,  now  came  to  be  the  leading  men  in 
Athens.  The  former  was  an  able  but  often  unscrupulous 
statesman;  the  latter  a  just  man  and  an  incorruptible  patriot 
Themistocles  foresaw  that  the  Persians  would  make  a  fresh 
attempt  to  subdue  Greece,  and  that  Athens  with  its  excellent 
harbor  and  commercial  facilities  could  be  far  stronger  on  sea 

*  "  So  ended  what  may  truly  be  called  the  birthday  of  Athenian  greatness.  It 
stood  alone  in  their  annals.  Other  glories  were  won  in  after  times,  but  none  ap- 
proached the  glory  of  Marathon.  It  was  not  merely  the  ensuing  generation  that  felt 
the  effects  of  that  wonderful  deliverance.  It  was  not  merely  Themistocles  whom 
the  marble  trophy  of  Miltiades  would  not  suffer  to  sleep.  It  was  not  merely  iEschy- 
lus,  who,  when  his  end  drew  near,  passed  over  all  his  later  achievements  in  war  and 
peace,  at  Salamis,  and  in  the  Diony^ac  theatre,  and  recorded  in  his  epitaph  only  the 
one  deed  of  his  early  days— that  he  had  repulsed  the  '  long-haired  Medes  at  Marathon.* 
It  was  not  merely  the  combatants  in  the  battle  who  told  of  supernatural  assistance 
in  the  shape  of  the  hero  Theseus,  or  of  the  mysterious  peasant,  wielding  a  gigantic 
ploughshare.  Everywhere  in  the  monuments  and  the  customs  of  their  country,  and 
for  centuries  afterward,  all  Athenian  citizens  were  reminded  of  that  great  day,  and 
of  that  alone.  The  frescoes  of  a  painted  portico— the  only  one  of  the  kind  in 
Athens— exhibited  in  lively  colors  the  scene  of  the  battle.  The  rock  of  the  Acropolis 
was  crowned  on  the  eastern  extremity  by  a  temple  of  Wingless  Victory,  now  sup- 
posed to  have  taken  up  her  abode  forever  in  the  city  ;  and  in  its  northern  precipice, 
the  cave,  which  up  to  this  time  had  remained  untenanted,  was  consecrated  to  Pan, 
In  commemoration  of  the  mysterious  voice  which  rang  through  the  Arcadian  moun- 
tains to  cheer  the  forlorn  messenger  on  his  empty-handed  return  from  Sparta.  The 
one  hundred  and  ninety-two  Athenians  who  had  fallen  on  the  field  received  the 
honor— unique  in  Athenian  history — of  burial  on  the  scene  of  their  death  (the 
tumulus  raised  over  their  bodies  by  Aristides  still  remains  to  mark  the  spot) ;  their 
names  were  invoked  with  hymns  and  sacrifices  down  to  the  latest  times  of  Grecian 
freedom;  and  long  after  that  freedom  had  been  extinguished,  even  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan  and  the  Antonines,  the  anniversary  of  Marathon  was  still  celebrated,  and 
the  battle-field  was  believed  to  be  haunted,  night  after  night,  by  the  snorting  of 
unearthly  chargers  and  the  clash  of  invisible  combatants." 


482  B.C.]  THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  17 

than  on  land.  He  therefore  urged  the  building  of  a  fleet. 
Aristides,  fond  of  the  old  ways,  condemned  this  measure. 
Themistocles,  dreading  the  opposition,  secured  the  ostracism  * 
of  his  rival. 

Third  Eispedition. — Darius  died  ere  he  could  make  a 
new  attempt  to  punish  Athens.  But  his  son  Xerxes  assem- 
bled over  a  million  soldiers,  whom  he  led  in  person  across 
the  Hellespont  and  along  the  coast  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia. 
A  fleet  of  twelve  hundred  war-ships  and  three  thousand 
transports  kept  within  easy  reach  from  the  shore,  f 

Battle  of  Thermopylae  (480  b.c.).— At  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae  his  march  was  cheeked  by  seven  thousand 
Greeks  under  Leonidas,  a  Spartan.  Xerxes  sent  a  messenger 
to  demand  their  arms.  He  received  the  laconic  reply, 
"  Come  and  take  them."  For  tv/o  days  the  Greeks  repulsed 
every  attack,  and  the  terrified  Persians  had  to  be  driven 
to  the  assault  with  whips.  On  the  third  day  a  traitor  having 
pointed  out  to  Xerxes  a  mountain-path,  he  sent  the  Immortals 
into  the  rear  of  the  Grecian  post.  It  was  the  Spartan  law 
that  a  soldier  should  die  but  not  yield.  So  Leonidas,  learn- 
ing of  the  peril,  sent  away  his  ajlies,  retaining  only  three 
hundred  Spartans  and  seven  hundred  Thespians,  who  wished 
to  share  in  the  glory  of  the  day.     The  little  band  prepared 

*  This  measure  was  introduced  by  Cleisthenes.  An  urn  was  placed  in  tlie  assem- 
bly, and  any  citizen  could  drop  into  it  a  shell  {ostrakon)  bearing  the  name  of  the 
person  he  wished  exiled.  When  six  thousand  votes  were  thrown  against  a  man 
he  was  banished  for  ten  years.  It  is  said  that,  on  this  occasion,  a  countryman  coming 
to  Aristides,  whom  he  did  not  know,  asked  him  to  write  Aristides  on  his  shell. 
"Why,  what  wrong  has  he  done?"  inquired  the  patriot.  "None  at  all,"  was  the 
reply,  "only  I  am  tired  of  hearing  him  called  the  Just." 

t  Two  magnificent  bridges  of  boats  which  he  built  across  the  Hellespont  having 
been  injured  in  a  storm,  the  story  is  that  Xerxes  ordered  the  sea  to  be  beaten  with 
whips,  and  fetters  to  be  thrown  into  it  to  show  that  he  was  its  master.  The  vast 
army  was  seven  days  in  crossing.  The  king  sat  on  a  throne  of  white  marble  in- 
specting the  army  as  it  passed.  It  consisted  of  forty-six  different  nations,  each 
armed  and  dressed  after  its  own  manner,  while  ships  manned  by  Phoenicians  covered 
the  sea.  Xerxes  is  said  to  have  burst  into  tears  when  he  thought  how  in  a  few  years 
not  one  of  all  that  iuunense  throng  would  be  alive. 


18 


GREECE. 


[480  B.C. 


for  battle — the  Spartans  combing  their  long  hair,  according 
to  custom — and  then,  scorning  to  await  the  attack,  dashed 
down  the  defile  to  meet  the  on-coming  enemy.  All  perished, 
fighting  to  the  last.* 


^ICJNITY 


PASS  OF  THERMOPYLAE.    * 


VICINITY  OF  THERMOPYLiE. 


*  "Xerxes  could  not  believe  Demaratus,  who  assured  him  that  the  Spartans  at 
least  were  come  to  dispute  the  Pass  with  him,  and  that  it  was  their  custom  to  trim 
their  hair  on  the  eve  of  a  combat.  Four  days  passed  before  he  could  be  convinced 
that  his  army  must  do  more  than  show  itself  to  clear  a  way  for  him.  On  the  fifth  day 
he  ordered  a  body  of  Median  and  Cissian  troops  to  fall  upon  the  rash  and  insolent 
enemy,  and  to  lead  them  captive  into  his  presence.  He  was  seated  on  a  lofty  throne 
from  which  he  could  survey  the  narrow  entrance  of  the  Pass,  which,  in  obedience  to 
his  commands,  his  warriors  endeavored  to  force.  But  they  fought  on  ground  where 
their  numbers  were  of  no  avail,  save  to  increase  their  confusion,  when  their  attack 
was  repulsed :  their  short  spears  could  not  reach  their  foe  ;  the  foremost  fell,  the 
hinder  advancing  over  their  bodies  to  the  charge  ;  their  repeated  onsets  broke  upon 
the  Greeks  idly,  as  waves  upon  a  rock.  At  length,  as  the  day  wore  on,  the  Medians 
and  Cissians,  spent  with  their  efforts  and  greatly  thinned  in  their  ranks,  were  recalled 
from  the  contest,  which  the  king  now  thought  worthy  of  the  superior  prowess  of  his 
own  guards,  the  ten  thousand  Immortals.  They  were  led  up  as  to  a  certain  and  easy 
victory ;  the  Greeks  stood  their  ground  as  before ;  or  if  they  ever  gave  way  and  turned 
their  backs,  it  was  only  to  face  suddenly  about,  and  deal  tenfold  destruction  on  their 
pursuers.  Thrice  during  these  fruitless  assaults  the  king  was  seen  to  start  up  from 
his  throne  in  a  transport  of  fear  or  rage.  The  combat  lasted  the  whole  day ;  the 
slaughter  of  the  barbarians  was  great ;  on  the  side  of  the  Greeks  a  few  Spartan  lives 
were  lost ;  as  to  the  rest,  nothing  is  said.  The  next  day  the  attack  was  renewed 
with  no  better  success  ;  the  bands  of  the  several  cities  that  made  up  the  Grecian 
army,  except  the  Phocians,  who  were  employed  in  defending  the  mountain-path  by 
which  the  defile  was  finally  turned,  relieved  each  other  at  the  post  of  honor ;  all  stood 
equally  firm,  and  repelled  the  charge  not  less  vigorously  than  before.  The  confidence 
of  Xerxes  was  changed  into  despondence  and  perplexity.^* 


480  B.  c] 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY. 


19 


LEONIDAS  AT  THE   PASS  OF  THERMOPYL^ 


The  sacrifice  of  Leo?iidas  became  the  inspiration  of  all 
Greece,  and  has  been  the  admiration  of  the  lovers  of  free- 
dom in  every  age.  The  names  of  the  three  hundred  were 
familiar  to  their  countrymen,  and,  six  hundred  years  after, 
a  traveler  spoke  of  seeing  them  inscribed  on  a  pillar  at 
Sparta.  Upon-  the  mound  where  the  last  stand  was  made 
a  marble  lion  was  erected  to  Leonidas,  and  a  pillar  to  the 


20  GREECE. 


t480B.c. 


three  hundred  bore  this  inscription,  written  by  Simonides 
(p.  52): 

"  Go,  Btranger,  and  to  Lacedsemon  tell 
That  here,  obeying  her  behests,  we  fell." 

Battle  of  Sal' amis,— At  first,  however,  the  loss  at  Ther- 
mopylae seemed  in  vain,  and  the  Asiatic  deluge  poured  south 
over  the  plains  of  Greece.  Warned  by  the  oracle  that  the 
safety  of  Athens  lay  in  her  ''  wooden  wall,"  the  inhabitants 
deserted  the  city,  which  Xerxes  burned.  The  ocean,  how- 
ever, seemed  to  "fight  for  Greece."  In  a  storm  the  Persian 
fleet  lost  two  hundred  ships.  But  it  was  still  so  much  supe- 
rior that  the  Greeks  were  fearful,  and  as  usual  quarreling,* 
when  Themistocles  determined  to  bring  on  the  battle,  and 
accordingly  sent  a  spy  to  the  enemy  to  say  that  his  country- 
men would  escape  if  they  were  not  attacked  immediately. 
Thereupon  the  Persians  blockaded  the  Hellenic  fleet  in  the 
harbor  of  Salamis.  Animated  by  the  spirit  of  Thermopyla? 
the  Grecians  silenced  their  disputes  and  rushed  to  the  fray. 
They  quickly  defeated  the  Phoenician  ships  in  the  van,  and 
then  the  very  multitude  of  the  vessels  caused  the  ruin  of  the 
Persian  fleet.     For  while  some  were  trying  to  escape  and 

*  "All  the  Thessalians,  Locrians,  and  Boeotians,  except  the  cities  of  Thespiae 
and  Plataea,  sent  earth  and  water  to  the  Persian  king  at  the  first  call  to  s^ubmit, 
although  these  tokens  of  subjection  were  attended  by  the  curses  of  the  rest  of  the 
Greeks,  and  the  vow  that  a  tithe  of  their  estates  should  be  devoted  to  the  city  of  Delphi. 
Yet  of  the  Greeks  who  did  not  favor  Persia,  some  were  willing  to  assist  only  on  con- 
dition of  being  appointed  to  conduct  and  command  the  whole  ;  others,  if  their  coun- 
try could  be  the  first  to  be  protected  ;  others  sent  a  squadron,  which  was  ordered  to 
wait  till  it  was  certain  which  side  would  gain  the  victory  ;  and  others  pretended  they 
were  held  back  by  the  declarations  of  an  oracle."— An  oft-told  story,  given  in  con- 
nection with  this  engagement,  illustrates  the  jealousy  of  the  Grecian  generals.  They 
were  met  to  decide  upon  the  prize  for  skill  and  wisdom  displayed  in  the  contest. 
When  the  votes  were  collected,  it  appeared  that  each  commander  had  placed  his  own 
name  first  and  that  of  Themistocles  second.— While  the  Grecian  leaders  at  Salamia 
were  deliberating  over  the  propriety  of  retreat  and  Themistocles  alone  held  firm,  a 
knock  was  heard  at  the  door,  and  Themistocles  was  called  out  to  speak  with  a 
stranger.  It  was  the  banished  Aristides.  "  Themistocles,"  said  he,  "  let  us  be  rivals 
still,  but  let  our  strife  be  which  best  may  serve  our  country."  He  had  crossed  from 
..Sgina  in  an  open  boat  to  inform  his  countrymen  that  they  were  surrounded  by  the 
enemy. 


480  B.  C.J  THE     POLITICAL     HISTOEY.  21 

some  to  come  to  the  front,  the  Greeks,  amid  the  confusion 
plying  every  weapon,  sunk  two  hundred  vessels  and  put  the 
rest  to  flight. 

Xerxes,  seated  on  a  lofty  throne  erected  on  the  beach, 
watched  the  contest.  Terrified  by  the  destruction  of  his 
fleet  he  fled  into  Asia,  leaving  three  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  picked  troops  under  Mardonius  to  continue  the  war. 

Battle  of  Himera. — While  the  hosts  of  Xerxes  were  pour- 
ing into  Hellas  on  the  northeast,  she  was  simultaneously 
assailed  on  the  southwest  by  another  formidable  foe.  An 
immense  fleet,  consisting  of  three  thousand  ships-of-war, 
sailing  from  Carthage  to  Sicily,  landed  an  army  under 
Hamilcar,  the  famous  Carthaginian  leader,  who  laid  siege 
to  Himera.  Gelo,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  marched  to  the 
relief  of  that  city  and,  on  the  very  day  of  Salamis,  utterly 
routed  the  Phoenician  forces.  The  tyranny  of  the  commer- 
cial oligarchy  of  Carthage  might  have  been  as  fatal  to  the 
liberties  of  Europe  as  the  despotism  of  Persia. 

Battle  of  Platcea  (4t9  B.C.). — Mardonius  wintered  in 
Thessaly,  and  the  next  summer  invaded  Attica.  The  half- 
rebuilt  houses  of  Athens  were  again  leveled  to  the  ground. 
Finally  the  allies,  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand  strong, 
'took  the  field  under  Pausanias,  the  Spartan.  After  the  two 
armies  had  faced  each  other  for  ten  days,  want  of  water 
compelled  Pausanias  to  move  his  camp.  While  en  route 
Mardonius  attacked  his  scattered  forces.  The  omens  were 
unfavorable,  and  the  Grecian  leader  dare  not  give  the  signal 
to  engage.  The  Spartans  protected  themselves  with  their 
shields  as  best  they  could  against  the  shower  of  arrows. 
Many  Greeks  were  smitten  and  fell,  lamenting  not  that  they 
must  fall,  but  that  they  could  not  strike  a  blow  for  their 
country.  In  his  distress  Pausanias  lifted  up  his  streaming 
eyes  toward  the  temple  of  Hera,  beseeching  the  goddess  that, 


22  GREECE.  [479  B.C. 

if  the  fates  forbade  the  Greeks  to  conquer,  they  might  die 
like  men.  Suddenly  the  sacrifices  became  auspicious.  The 
Spartans  charging  in  compact  rank,  shield  touching  shield, 
with  their  long  spears  swept  all  before  them.  The  Athenians 
coming  up  stormed  the  intrenched  camp.  Scarcely  forty 
thousand  Persians  escaped.  The  booty  was  immense. 
Wagons  were  piled  up  with  vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  jewels, 
and  articles  of  luxury.  One  tenth  ot  all  the  plunder  was 
dedicated  to  the  gods.  The  prize  of  valor  was  adjudged  to 
the  Plataeans,  and  they  were  charged  to  preserve  the  graves 
of  the  slain,  Pausanias  promising  with  a  solemn  oath  that 
the  battle-field  should  be  sacred  forever. 

That  same  day  the  Grecian  fleet  having  crossed  the 
-^gean,  destroyed  the  Persian  fleet  at  Mycale  in  Asia  Minor. 

The  effect  of  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  Salamis,  Plataea, 
and  Mycale  was  to  give  the  death-blow  to  Persian  rule  in 
Europe.  Grecian  valor  had  saved  a  continent  from  eastern 
slavery  and  barbarism.  More  than  that,  the  Persian  wars  gave 
rise  to  the  real  Hellenic  civilization,  and  Marathon  and  Sala- 
mis may  be  looked  upon  as  the  birth-places  of  Grecian  glory. 

Athenian  Supremacy. — Greece  was  now,  to  paraphrase 
the  language  of  Diodorus,  at  the  head  of  the  world,  Athens 
at  the  head  of  Greece,  and  Themistocles  at  the  head  of 
Athens.  The  city  of  Athens  was  quickly  rebuilt.  During 
the  recent  war  the  Spartan  soldiers  had  taken  the  lead,  but 
Pausanias  afterward  proved  a  traitor,  and  as  Athens  was  so 
strong  in  ships  she  became  the  acknowledged  leader  of  all 
the  Grecian  states.  A  league,  called  the  Oonfederation  of 
Delos  (477  b.  c),  was  formed  to  keep  the  Persians  out  of  the 
-^gean.  The  different  cities  annually  contributed  to  Athens 
a  certain  number  of  ships,  or  a  fixed  sum  of  money  for  the 
support  of  the  navy.  The  ambition  of  Themistocles  was  to 
form  a  grand  maritime  empire,  but  his  share  in  the  treason 


478B.C.] 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY. 


of  Pausanias  having  been  discovered,  be  was  ostracized. 
Aristides,  seeing  the  drift  of  affairs,  had  changed  his  views, 
and  was  already  the  popular  commander  of  the  fleet. 
Though  the  head  of  the  party  of  the  nobles,  he  secured  a 
law  abolishing  the  property  qualification,  and  allowing  any 
person  to  hold  office.* 


VICINITY  OF 

ATHENS 

AND 

SALA3IIS 


VICINITY   OF  ATHENS. 


AGE    OF    PERICLES. 

(479-429  B.C.) 

The  leading  men  at  Athens,  after  the  death  of  Aristides, 
were  Pericles  and  Cimon.  The  heroes  of  the  Persian  In- 
vasions had  passed  from  the  stage,  and  new  actors  now 
appeared. 

*  The  thoughtful  student  of  history  cannot  but  pause  here  to  consider  the  fate 
of  these  three  great  contemporary  men— Pausanias,  Themistocles,  and  Aristides. 
Pausanias  fled  to  the  temple  of  Minerva.  The  Spartans,  not  daring  to  violate  this 
sanctuary,  blocked  the  door  (the  traitor's  mother  laying  the  first  stone),  tore  off  the 
roof,  guarded  every  avenue,  and  left  the  wretch  to  die  of  cold  and  hunger.  Themis- 
tocles was  welcomed  by  Artaxerxes,  then  king  of  Persia,  and  assigned  the  revenue 
of  three  cities.  He  lived  like  a  prince,  but  finally  ended  his  pitiable  existence,  it  is 
said,  with  poison.  Aristides  the  Just  went  down  to  •*'«i  grave  full  of  honors.  The 
treasurer  of  the  league,  he  had  yet  been  so  honest  that  he  did  not  leave  enough  money 
to  meet  his  funeral  expenses.  The  grateful  republic  paid  these  rites,  finished  the 
education  of  his  son,  and  portioned  liis  daughters. 


24  GEEECE.  [466  B.C. 

Cimon  *  renewed  the  glory  of  his  father  Miltiades,  the 
victor  at  Marathon.  He  pushed  on  the  war  in  Asia  Minor 
against  Persia  with  great  vigor,  finally  routing  their  land 
and  sea  forces  in  the  decisive  battle  of  the  Eurymedon 
(466  B.  c).  As  the  head  of  the  nobles  he  was  naturally 
friendly  to  aristocratic  Sparta.  The  Helots  and  Messenians, 
taking  advantage  of  an  earthquake  which  nearly  destroyed 
that  city,  revolted,  and  a  ten-years  struggle  (known  in  his- 
tory as  the  Third  Messenian  War)  ensued.  The  haughty 
Spartans  were  driven  to  ask  aid  from  Athens.  By  the  in- 
fluence of  Cimon  this  was  granted.  But  the  Spartans  were 
fearful  of  such  allies,  and  ungraciously  sent  the  army  home. 
All  Athens  at  once  rose  in  indignation  at  this  outrage. 
Cimon  was  ostracized  (461  B.  c). 

Pericles,!  who  was  the  leader  of  the  democracy,  now 

*  Cimon  was  the  richest  man  in  Athena.  He  kept  open  tahle  for  the  public. 
A  body  of  servants  laden  with  cloaks  followed  him  through  the  streets,  and  gave  a 
garment  to  any  needy  person  whom  he  met.  His  pleasure-garden  was  free  for  all  to 
enter  and  pluck  fruit  or  flowers.  He  planted  oriental  plane-trees  in  the  market-place ; 
bequeathed  to  Athens  the  groves,  afterward  the  Academy  of  Plato,  with  its  beautiful 
fountains  ;  built  marble  colonnades  where  the  people  were  wont  to  promenade ;  and 
gave  magnificent  dramatic  entertainments  at  his  private  expense. 

t  "  To  all  students  of  Grecian, literature  Pericles  must  always  appear  as  the  central 
figure  of  Grecian  history.  His  form,  manner,  and  outwai-d  appearance  are  well 
known.  We  can  imagine  that  stem  and  almost  forbidding  aspect  which  repelled 
rather  than  invited  intimacy ;  the  majestic  stature ;  the  long  head — long  to  dispro- 
portion—already before  his  fiftieth  year  silvered  over  with  the  marks  of  age ;  the 
sweet  voice  and  rapid  enunciation— recalling,  though  by  an  unwelcome  association, 
the  likeness  of  his  ancestor  Pisistratus.  We  knew  the  stately  reserve  which  reigned 
through  his  whole  life  and  manners.  Those  grave  features  were  never  seen  to  relax 
into  laughter—twice  only  in  his  long  career  to  melt  into  tears.  For  the  whole  forty 
years  of  his  administration  he  never  accepted  an  invitation  to  dinner  but  once,  and 
that  to  his  nephew's  wedding,  and  then  stayed  only  till  the  libation  (p.  87),  That 
princely  courtesy  could  never  be  disturbed  by  the  bitterest  persecution  of  aristocratic 
enmity  or  popular  irritation.  To  the  man  who  had  followed  him  all  the  way  from  the 
Assembly  to  his  own  house,  loading  him  with  the  abusive  epithets  with  which,  as 
we  know  from  Aristophanes,  the  Athenian  vocabulary  was  so  richly  stored,  he  paid 
no  other  heed  than,  on  arriving  at  his  own  door,  to  turn  to  his  torch-bearer  with  an 
order  to  light  his  reviler  home.  In  public  it  was  the  same.  Amidst  the  passionate 
gesticulations  of  Athenian  oratory,  amidst  the  tempest  of  an  Athenian  mob,  his  self- 
possession  was  never  lost,  his  dress  was  never  disordered,  his  language  was  ever 
studied  and  measured.  Every  speech  that  he  delivered  he  wrote  down  previously. 
Every  time  that  he  spoke  he  offered  up  a  prayer  to  Heaven  that  no  word  might  escape 
his  lips  which  he  should  wish  unsaid.    But  when  he  did  speak  the  effect  wae  almost 


461  B.C.]  THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  35 

had  everything  his  own  way.  A  mere  private  citizen,  living 
plainly  and  unostentatiously,  this  great-hearted  man  was 
able  during  his  lifetime,  by  the  spell  of  his  eloquence  and 
the  force  of  his  genius,  to  shape  the  policy  of  the  state.  He 
was  bent  on  keeping  Athens  all-powerful  in  Greece,  and  on 
making  the  people  all-powerful  in  Athens.  He  had  perfect 
confidence  in  a  government  by  the  masses,  if  they  were  only 
properly  educated.  There  were  then  no  common  schools, 
or  daily  papers,  and  he  was  forced  to  use  what  the  times 
supplied.  He  paid  the  people  so  they  could  afford  to  sit  on 
jury  and  attend  the  Assembly  to  listen  to  the  discussion  of 
public  affairs.  He  had  the  grand  dialogues  of  ^schylus, 
Euripides,  and  Sophocles  performed  free  before  the  multi- 
tude. He  erected  magnificent  public  buildings,  and  adorned 
them  with  the  noblest  historical  paintings.  He  made  the 
temples  of  the  gods  grand  and  pure  with  beautiful  architec- 
ture and  the  exquisite  sculptures  of  Phidias.  He  encouraged 
poets,  artists,  philosophers,  and  orators  to  do  their  best 
work.  Under  his  fostering  care  the  Age  of  Pericles  became 
the  finest  blossom  and  fruitage  of  Hellenic  civilization. 

Athens  Ornamented  and  Fortified.  —  Matchless 
colonnades  and  temples-  were  now  erected,  which  are  yet  the 
wonder  of  the  world.     The  Acropolis  was  so  enriched  with 

awful.  The  '  fierce  democracy '  was  stnick  down  before  it.  It  could  be  compared  to 
nothing  short  of  the  thunders  and  lightnings  of  that  Olympian  Jove  whom  in  majesty 
and  dignity  he  resembled.  It  left  the  irresistible  impression  that  he  was  always  in 
the  right.  '  He  not  only  throws  me  in  the  wrestle,'  said  one  of  his  rivals,  '  but  when 
I  have  thrown  him  he  will  make  the  people  think  that  it  is  I  and  not  he  who  has 
fallen.'  What  Themistocles,  what  Aristides,  what  Ephialtes,  what  Cimon  said,  has 
perished  from  the  memory  of  their  hearers.  But  the  condensed  and  vivid  images  of 
Pericles,  far  more  vivid  in  Grecian  oratory,  from  their  contrast  with  the  general 
simplicity  of  ancient  diction,  than  they  would  be  now,  were  handed  down  from  age 
to  age  as  specimens  of  that  eloquence  which  had  held  Athens  and  Greece  in  awe. 
'  The  lowering  of  the  storm  of  war'  from  Peloponnesus—'  the  spring  taken  out  of  the 
year'  in  the  loss  of  the  flower  of  Athenian  youths— the  comparison  of  Greece  to  'a 
chariot  drawn  by  two  horses  '—of  ^gina  to  '  the  eyesore  of  the  Piraeus  '—of  Athens 
to  '  the  school  of  Greece  '—were  amongst  the  traditionary  phrases  which  later  w^riters 
preserved,  and  which  Thucydides  either  iutroduced  or  imitated  in  the  Funeral  Ora- 
tion which  he  has  put  in  his  mouth.'* 


26 


GEEECE. 


[455  B.  C. 


magnificent  structures  that  it  was  called  "  the  city  of  the 
gods."  The  Long  Walls  were  built  two  hundred  yards 
apart,  and  extended  over  four  miles  from  Athens  to  Pirasus 
— its  harbor.  Thus  the  capital  was  connected  with  the  sea, 
and,  while  the  Athenians  held  the  command  of  the  ocean, 
their  ships  could  bring  them  supplies,  even  when  the  city 
should  be  surrounded  by  an  enemy  on  land. 


A   SCENE   IN   ATHENS   IN   THE  TIME   OF    PERICLES. 


The  wonderful  spirit  and  enterprise  of  the  Athenians  are 
shown  from  the  fact  that,  while  they  were  thus  erecting  great 
public  works  at  home,  they  were  during  a  single  year  (458  b.c.) 
waging  war  in  Cyprus,  in  Egypt,  in  Phoenicia,  off  ^gina. 


450B.C.]  THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  27 

and  on  the  coast  of  Peloponnesus.  The  Corinthians,  know- 
ing that  the  Athenian  troops  were  occupied  so  far  from 
home,  invaded  Megara,  then  in  alUance  with  Athens,  but 
the  "boys  and  old  men"  of  Athens  sallied  out  and  routed 
them.  So  completely  was  the  tide  turned  that  (450  b.  c.) 
Artaxerxes  I.  made  a  treaty  with  Athens  agreeing  to  the 
independence  of  the  Grecian  cities  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
promising  not  to  spread  a  sail  on  the  ^gean  Sea,  nor  bring 
a  soldier  within  three-days  march  of  its  coast. 

PELOPONNESIAK"    WAR 

(431-404  B.C.) 

Causes  of  the  War. — The  arrogant  meddling  of  Athens 
in  the  affairs  of  her  allies,  and  the  use  of  their  contributions 
(p.  22)  in  erecting  her  own  public  buildings,  had  aroused 
the  bitterest  hatred.  Sparta,  jealous  of  the  glory  and  fame 
of  her  rival,  watched  every  chance  to  interfere.  The  real 
question  at  issue,  however,  was  the  broad  one  whether  the 
ruling  power  in  Hellas  should  be  Athens — Ionic,  democratic 
and  maritime,  or  Sparta — Doric,  aristocratic  and  military. 
A  quarrel  having  arisen  between  Corinth  and  her  colony  of 
Corcyra,  Athens  favored  the  latter ;  Sparta,  the  former. 
Nearly  all  Greece  took  sides  in  the  quarrel,  according  to 
race  or  political  sympathy.  The  lonians  and  the  democracy 
aided  Athens ;  the  Dorians  and  the  aristocracy,  Sparta. 
Both  parties  were  sometimes  found  within  the  same  city 
contending  for  the  supremacy. 

Allies  of  Athens. 


All  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  (except 
Melos  and  Thera),  Corcyra,  Zac)Tithus, 
Chios,  Lesbos,  and  Samos ;  the 
numerous  Greek  colonies  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  and  Macedon  ; 
Naupactus,  Plataea,  and  a  part  of  Acar- 
iiiiaia. 


AUies  cf  Sparta. 
All  the  states  of  the  Peloponnesus 
(except  Arcros  and  Achaia,  which  re- 
mained neutral) ;  Locris,  Phocis,  and 
Megara;  Ambracia,  Anactorium,  and 
the  island  of  Leucas ;  and  the  strong 
Boeotian  League,  of  which  Thebes  was 
the  head. 


28  GREECE.  [431  B.  C. 

Conduct  of  the  War. — The  Spartan  plan  was  to  invade 
Attica,  destroy  the  crops,  and  persuade  the  Athenian  allies  to 
desert  her.  As  Sparta  was  strong  on  land  and  Athens  on 
water,  Pericles  ordered  the  people  of  Attica  to  take  refuge 
within  the  Long  Walls  of  the  city,  while  the  fleet  and  army 
ravaged  the  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus.  When  therefore 
Archidamus,  king  of  Sparta,  invaded  Attica,  the  people 
flocked  into  the  city  with  all  their  movable  possessions. 
Temporary  buildings  were  erected  in  every  vacant  place  in 
the  public  squares  and  streets,  while  the  poorest  of  the 
populace  were  forced  to  seek  protection  in  squalid  huts 
beneath  the  shelter  of  the  Long  Walls.  Pitiable  indeed  was 
the  condition  of  the  inhabitants  during  these  hot  summer 
days  as  they  saw  the  enemy,  without  hindrance,  burning 
their  homes  and  destroying  their  crops,  while  the  Athenian 
fleet  was  off  ravaging  the  coast  of  Peloponnesus.  But  it 
was  worse  the  second  year,  when  a  fearful  pestilence  broke 
out  in  the  crowded  population.  Many  died,  among  them 
Pericles  himself  (429  B.C.).*  This  was  the  greatest  loss  of 
all,  for  there  was  no  statesman  left  to  guide  the  people. 

*  "  When,  at  the  opening  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  the  long  enjoyment  of  every 
comfort  which  peace  and  civilization  could  bring  was  interrupted  by  hostile  invasion; 
when  the  whole  population  of  Attica  was  crowded  within  the  city  of  Athens ;  when 
to  the  inflammable  materials  which  the  populace  of  a  Grecian  town  would  always 
afford,  were  added  the  discontented  landowners  and  peasants  from  the  country,  who 
were  obliged  to  exchange  the  olive  glades  of  Colonus,  the  thymy  slopes  of  Hymettus, 
and  the  oak  forests  of  Acharnae,  for  the  black  shade  of  the  Pelasgicum  and  the 
stifling  huts  along  the  dusty  plain  between  the  Long  Walls ;  when,  without,  were 
e^een  the  fire  and  smoke  ascending  from  the  ravage  of  their  beloved  orchards  and 
gardens;  and,  within,  the  excitement  was  aggravated  by  the  little  knots  which  gath- 
ered at  every  comer  and  by  the  predictions  of  impending  evil  which  were  handed 
about  from  mouth  to  mouth ;  when  all  these  feelings,  awakened  by  a  situation  bo 
wholly  new  in  a  population  so  irritable,  turned  against  one  man  as  the  author  of  the 
present  distress,  then  it  was  seen  how  their  respect  for  that  one  man  united  with 
their  inherent  respect  for  law  to  save  the  state.  Not  only  did  Pericles  restrain  the 
more  eager  spirits  from  sallying  forth  to  defend  their  burning  property— not  only  did 
he  calm  and  elevate  their  despondency  by  his  speeches  in  the  Pnyx  and  Ceramicus— 
not  only  did  he  refuse  to  call  an  Assembly — but  no  attempt  at  an  Assembly  was  ever 
made.  The  groups  in  the  streets  never  grew  into  a  mob,  and  even  when  to  the  hor- 
rors of  a  blockade  were  added  those  of  a  pestilence,  public  tranquillity  was  never  for 
a  moment  disturbed— the  order  of  the  constitution  was  never  for  a  moment  infringed. 


429  b.  C]  THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  29 

Demagogues  now  arose,  chief  among  whom  was  Cleon,  a 
cruel,  arrogant  boaster,  who  gained  power  by  flattering  the 
populace.  About  this  time,  also,  the  Spartans  began  to 
build  ships  to  dispute  the  empire  of  the  sea,  on  which 
Athens  had  so  long  triumphed. 

The  memorable  siege  of  Flataea,  which  began  in  the 
third  year  of  the  war,  illustrates  the  desperation  and  destruc- 
tion which  characterized  this  terrible  struggle  of  twenty- 
seven  years.  In  spite  of  Pausanias's  oath  (p.  22),  Archidd- 
mus  with  the  Spartan  army  attacked  this  city,  which  was 
defended  by  only  four  hundred  and  eighty  men.  First,  the 
Spartan  general  closed  every  outlet  by  a  wooden  palisade, 
and  then  constructed  an  inclined  plane  of  earth  and  stone, 
up  which  his  men  could  advance  to  hurl  their  weapons 
against  the  city.  This  work  cost  seventy-days  labor  of  the 
whole  army,  but  the  garrison  undermined  the  mound  and 
destroyed  it  entirely.    Next,  the  Spartans  built  around  the 

And  yet  the  man  who  thus  swayed  the  minds  of  his  fellow-citizens  was  the  reverse 
of  a  demagogue.  Unlike  his  aristocratic  rival,  Cimon,  he  never  won  their  favor  by 
indiscriminate  bounty.  Unlike  his  democratic  successor,  Cleon,  he  never  influenced 
their  passions  by  coarse  invectives.  Unlike  his  kinsman,  Alcibiades,  he  never  sought 
to  dazzle  them  by  a  display  of  his  genius  or  his  wealth.  At  the  very  moment  when 
Pericles  was  preaching  the  necessity  of  manful  devotion  to  the  common  country,  he 
was  himself  the  greatest  of  sufferers.  The  epidemic  carried  off  his  two  sons,  his 
Bister,  several  other  relatives,  and  his  best  and  most  useful  political  friends.  Amidst 
this  train  of  calamities  he  maintained  his  habitual  self-command,  until  the  death  of 
his  favorite  son  Paralus  left  his  house  without  a  legitimate  representative  to  maintain 
the  family  and  its  hereditary  sacred  rites.  On  this  final  blow— the  greatest  that, 
according  to  the  Greek  feeling,  could  befall  any  human  being— though  he  strove  to 
command  himself  as  before,  yet  at  the  obsequies  of  the  young  man,  when  it  became 
his  duty  to  place  a  garland  on  the  dead  body,  his  grief  became  uncontrollable,  and  he 
burst  into  tears.  Every  feeling  of  resentment  seems  to  have  passed  away  from  the 
hearts  of  the  Athenian  people  before  the  touching  sight  of  the  marble  majesty  of 
their  great  statesman  yielding  to  the  common  emotion  of  their  own  excitable  nature. 
Every  measure  was  passed  which  could  alleviate  this  deepest  sorrow  of  his  declining 
age.  But  it  was  too  late,  and  he  soon  sank  into  the  stupor  from  which  he  never 
recovered.  As  he  lay  apparently  passive  in  the  hands  of  the  nurse,  who  had  hung 
round  his  neck  the  amulets  which  in  life  and  health  he  had  scorned ;  whilst  his 
friends  were  dwelling  with  pride  on  the  nine  trophies  which  on  Bceotia  and  Samos  and 
on  the  shores  of  Peloponnesus  bore  witness  to  his  success  during  his  forty-years 
career,  the  dying  man  suddenly  broke  in  with  the  emphatic  words,  '  That  of  which  J 
am  most  proud  you  have  left  unsaid— No  Athenian,  through  my  fault,  was  ever 
clothed  in  the  black  garb  of  mourning.'  "—(Quarterly  Eeview. 


439-427B.C.]    THE     POLITICAL     HISTOKY.  31 

city  two  concentric  walls,  and  roofed  over  the  space  between 
them  so  as  to  give  shelter  to  the  soldiers  on  guard.  For  two 
long  years  the  Plataeans  were  shut  in  and  endured  all  the 
horrors  of  a  siege.  Provisions  now  ran  low,  and  one  stormy 
December  night  a  part  of  the  men  stole  out  of  the  gate,  and 
placing  their  ladders  against  .the  Spartan  wall,  climbed  to 
the  top,  killed  the  sentinels,  and  escaped  through  the  midst 
of  the  enemy  with  the  loss  of  only  one  man.  The  rest  of 
the  garrison  were  thus  enabled  to  hold  out  some  time  longer. 
But  at  length  their  food  was  exhausted,  and  they  were 
forced  to  surrender.  The  cruel  Spartans  put  every  man  to 
death,  and  then,  to  please  the  Thebans,  razed  the  city  to 
the  ground.  Heroic  little  Plataea  was  thus  blotted  out  of 
the  map  of  Greece. 

Alcibiades,  a  young  nobleman,  the  nephew  of  Pericles 
and  pupil  of  Socrates,  by  his  wealth,  beauty,  and  talent, 
next  won  the  ear  of  the  crowd.  Reckless  and  dissolute, 
with  no  heart,  conscience,  or  principle,  he  cared  for  nothing 
except  his  own  ambitious  schemes.  Though  peace  had  then 
come  through  the  negotiations  of  Nicias,  the  favorite 
Athenian  general,  it  was  broken  by  the  influence  of  this 
demagogue,  and  the  bloody  contest  renewed. 

Expedition  to  Sicily  (415  B.C.). — The  oppressions  of 
the  tyrants  of  Syracuse,  a  Dorian  city  in  Sicily,  gave  an  ex- 
cuse for  seizing  that  island,  and  Alcibiades  advocated  this 
brilliant  scheme,  which  promised  to  make  Athens  irresistible. 
The  largest  fleet  and  army  Hellas  Iiad  yet  sent  forth  were 
accordingly  equipped.  One  morning,  just  before  their  de- 
parture, the  busts  of  Hermes  that  were  placed  along  the  roads 
of  Attica  to  mark  the  distance,  and  in  front  of  the  Athenian 
houses  as  protectors  of  the  people,  were  found  to  be  muti- 
lated. The  populace  in  dismay,  lest  a  curse  should  fall  on 
the  city,  demanded  the  punishment  of  those  who  had  com- 


32  GREECE.  [415  B.  C. 

mitted  this  sacrilegious  act.  It  was  probable  that  some 
drunken  revelers  had  done  the  mischief;  but  the  enemies  of 
Alcibiades  made  the  people  believe  that  he  was  the  offender. 
After  he  sailed  he  was  cleared  of  this  charge,  but  a  new  one 
impended.  This  was  that  he  had  privately  performed  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries  (p.  72)  for  the  amusement  of  his 
friends.  To  answer  this  heinous  offence,  Alcibiades  was 
summoned  home,  but  he  escaped  to  Sparta,  and  gave  the 
rival  city  the  benefit  of  his  powerful  support.  Meanwhile 
the  exasperated  Athenians  condemned  him  to  death,  seized 
his  property,  and  called  upon  the  priests  to  pronounce  him 
accursed. 

The  expedition  had  now  lost  the  only  man  who  could 
have  made  it  a  success.  Nicias,  the  commander,  was  old 
and  sluggish.  Disasters  followed  apace.  Finally  GyUppus, 
a  famous  Spartan  general,  came  to  the  help  of  Syracuse. 
Athens  sent  a  new  fleet  and  army,  but  she  did  not  furnish  a 
better  leader,  and  the  reinforcement  served  only  to  increase 
the  final  ruin.  In  a  great  sea-fight  in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse 
the  Athenian  ships  were  defeated,  and  the  troops  attempt- 
ing to  flee  by  land  were  overtaken  and  forced  to  surrender 
(413  B.  c). 

Fall  of  Athens. — The  proud  city  was  now  doomed. 
Her  best  soldiers  were  dying  in  the  dungeons  of  Syracuse. 
Her  treasury  was  empty.  Alcibiades  was  pressing  on  her 
destruction  with  all  his  revengeful  genius.  A  Spartan  gar- 
rison held  Deceleia,  in  the  heart  of  Attica.  The  Athenian 
allies  dropped  off.  The  Ionic  colonies  revolted.  Yet  with 
the  energy  of  despair  Athens  dragged  out  the  unequal  con- 
test nine  years  longer.  The  recall  of  Alcibiades  gave  a 
gleam  of  success.  But  victory  at  the  price  of  submission 
to  such  a  master  was  too  costly,  and  he  was  dismissed. 
Persian  gold  gave  weight  to  the  Lacedaemonian  sword  and 


405  B.C.]  THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  33 

equipped  her  fleet.  The  last  ships  of  Athens  were  taken 
by  Lysander,  the  Spartan,  at  JEgos  Potdmos  (Goat's-river). 
Sparta  had  got  control  of  the  sea,  and  Athens,  its  harbor 
blockaded,  suffered  famine,  in  addition  to  the  horrors  of 
war.  The  imperial  city  surrendered  at  last  (404  b.  c).  Her 
ships  were  given  up ;  and  the  Long  Walls  were  torn  down 
amid  the  playing  of  flutes  and  the  rejoicings  of  dancers, 
crowned  with  garlands,  as  for  a  festival.  "  That  day  was 
deemed  by  the  Peloponnesians,"  says  Xenophon,  "the  com- 
mencement of  liberty  for  Greece." 

Thus  ended  the  Peloponnesian  War  twenty-seven  years 
after  its  commencement,  and  seventy-six  years  after  Salamis, 
which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Athenian  power.  Athens 
had  fallen,  but  she  possessed  a  kingdom  of  which  Sparta 
could  not  deprive  her.  She  still  remained  the  mistress  of 
Greece  in  literature  and  art. 

The  Thirty  Tyrants. — A  Spartan  garrison  was  now 
placed  in  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  and  an  oligarchy  of  thirty 
persons  established.  A  reign  of  terror  followed.  The 
"  Thirty  Tyrants  "  put  hundreds  of  citizens  to  death  without 
form  of  trial.  After  they  had  ruled  only  eight  months  the 
Athenian  exiles  returned  in  arms,  overthrew  the  tyrants,  and 
re-established  a  democratic  government. 

Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  (401  b.c). — Now  that 
peace  had  come  at  home,  ten  thousand  restless  Greeks* 
were  away  helping  Cyrus  the  Younger,  satrap  of  Asia  Minor, 
to  dethrone  his  elder  brother,  Artaxerxes.  At  Cunaxa,  near 
Babylon,  they  routed  the  Persians.  But  Cyrus  fell,  and  to 
complete  their  misfortune  their  chief  officers  were  induced 
to  visit  the  enemy's  camp,  where  they  were  treacherously 
taken  prisoners.     Left  thus  in  the  heart  of  the  Persian  em- 

*  Greece  at  this  time  was  ftill  of  soldiers  of  fortune— men  who  made  war  a  trade, 
and  served  anybody  who  was  able  to  pay  them. 


34  GREECE.  [401  B.  c. 

pire  the  little  army  chose  new  captains,  and  decided  to  cut 
its  way  home  again.  All  were  ignorant  alike  of  the  route 
and  the  language  of  the  people.  Hostile  troops  swarmed 
on  every  side.  Traitors  misled  them.  Famine  threatened 
theni.  Snows  overwhelmed  them.  Yet  they  struggled  on 
for  months.  When  one  day  ascending  a  mountain,  there 
broke  from  the  van  the  joyful  shout  of  *'  The  Sea  !  The 
Sea  !"  It  was  the  Euxine,  a  branch  of  that  sea  whose 
waters  washed  the  shores  of  their  beloved  Greece. 

About  three-fourths  of  the  original  number  survived  to 
tell  the  story  of  that  wonderful  march.  Such. an  exploit, 
while  it  honored  the  endurance  of  the  Greek  soldier,  revealed 
the  weakness  of  the  Persian  empire. 


LACEDiEMON  AND   THEBAN  DOMINION. 

Lacedaemon  Rule  (405-371  B.C.). — Tempted  by  the 
glittering  prospect  of  Eastern  conquest  Sparta  sent  Agesila'us 
into  Asia.  His  success  there  made  Artaxerxes  tremble  for 
his  throne.  Again  Persian  gold  was  thrown  into  the  scale. 
The  Athenians  were  helped  to  rebuild  the  Long  Walls,  and 
soon  their  flag  floated  once  more  on  the  ^gean.  Conon,  the 
Athenian  admiral,  defeated  the  Spartan  fleet  off  Cnidus, 
near  Khodes  (394  b.  c).  In  Greece  the  Spartan  rule,  cruel 
and  coarse,  had  already  become  unendurable.  In  every 
town,  Sparta  sought  to  establish  an  oligarchy  of  ten  citizens 
favorable  to  herself,  and  a  harmost,  or  governor.  Wherever 
popular  liberty  asserted  itself,  she  endeavored  to  extinguish 
it  by  military  force.  But  Corinth,  Argos,  Thebes,  and 
Athens  struck  for  freedom.  Sparta  was  forced  to  recall 
Agesilaus.  Strangely  enough  she  now  made  friends  with 
the  Great  King,  who  dictated  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas 


387  B.C.]  THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  35 

(387  B.  c.),*  which  ended  the  war,  and  gave  up  Asia  Minor 
to  him.  So  low  had  Hellas  fallen  since  the  days  of  Salamis 
and  Plataea ! 

Theban  Rule  (371-362  B.a).— At  the  very  height  of 
Sparta's  arrogance  her  humiliation  came.  The  Boeotian 
League  (p.  27)  having  been  restored,  and  the  oligarchical 
governments  favorable  to  Sparta  overthrown,  a  Spartan 
army  invaded  that  state.  At  this  juncture  there  arose  in 
Thebes  a  great  general,  Epaminondas,  who  made  the  Theban 
army  the  best  in  the  land.  On  the  famous  field  of  Leudra 
(371b.  c),  by  throwing  heavy  columns  against  the  long 
lines  of  Spartan  soldiers,  he  beat  them  for  the  first  time  in 
their  history,  f  The  charm  of  Lacedaemonian  invincibility 
was  broken.  The  stream  of  Persian  gold  now  turned  into 
Thebes.  The  tyrannical  Spartan  harmosts  were  expelled 
from  all  the  cities.  To  curb  the  power  of  Sparta  the  inde- 
pendence of  Messenia,  after  three  centuries  of  slavery,  was 
re-established  (p.  9).  Arcadia  was  united  in  a  League, 
having  as  its  head  Magalopolis,  a  new  city  now  founded.  A 
wise,  pure-hearted  statesman,  Epaminondas  sought  to  com- 
bine Hellas,  and  not,  like  Athens  or  Sparta,  selfishly  to  rule 

*  This  peace  was  an  incident  of  mournful  import  in  Grecian  history.  Its  true 
character  cannot  be  better  described  than  by  a  brief  remark  and  reply,  cited  in 
Plutarch :  "  Alas  for  Hellas,"  observed  some  one  to  Agesilaus,  "  when  we  see  our 
Laconians  Medizing ! "  "  Nay,"  replied  the  Spartan  king  "  say  rather  the  Medes 
(Persians)  Laconizing." 

t  The  Spartan  lines  were  twelve  flies  deep.  Epaminondas  (fighting  en  echelon) 
made  his,  at  the  point  where  he  wished  to  break  through,  fifty  files  deep.  At  his 
Bide  always  fought  his  intimate  friend  Pelopidas,  who  commanded  the  Sacred  Band. 
This  consisted  of  three  hundred  brothers-in-arms,  men  who  had  known  one  another 
from  childhood,  and  were  sworn  to  live  and  die  together.  In  the  crisis  of  the  struggle, 
Epaminondas  cheered  his  men  with  the  words,  "  One  step  forward."  While  the  by- 
standers after  the  battle  were  congratulating  him  over  his  victory,  he  replied  that 
his  greatest  pleasure  was  in  thinking  how  it  would  gratify  his  father  and  mother. 
Soon  after  Epaminondas  returned  from  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  his  enemies  secured 
his  election  as  public  scavenger.  The  noble-spirited  man  immediately  accepted  the 
office,  declaring  that  "  the  place  did  not  confer  dignity  on  the  man,  but  the  man  on 
the  place  ";  and  executed  the  duties  of  this  unworthy  post  so  efficiently  as  to  baffle 
the  malice  of  his  foes. 


36  GREECE.  [362  B.C. 

it.  Athens  at  first  aided  him,  and  then,  jealous  of  his  suc- 
cess, sided  with  Lacedaemon.  At  Mmitinea  (362  B.  c),  how- 
ever, Epaminondas  fought  his  last  battle,  and  died  at  the 
moment  of  victory."*  He  alone  made  Thebes  great,  and  she 
dropped  back  at  once  to  her  former  level. 

Three  states  in  succession — Athens,  Sparta,  and  Thebes — 
had  risen  to  take  the  lead  in  Greece.  Each  had  failed. 
Hellas  now  lay  a  mass  of  quarreling,  struggling  states, 
waiting  the  strong  hand  of  a  conqueror  to  mold  them  in 
his  grasp. 


MAOEDOI^JIAN    EMPIEE. 

Rise  of  Macedonia. — The  Macedonians  were  allied  to 
the  Greeks,  and  their  kings  took  part  in  the  Olympian 
games.  They  were,  however,  a  very  different  people.  In- 
stead of  living  in  a  multitude  of  free  cities,  as  in  Greece, 
they  dwelt  in  the  country,  and  were  all  governed  by  one 
king.  The  polite  and  refined  Athenian  looked  upon  the 
coarse  Macedonian  as  almost  a  barbarian.  But  about  the 
time  of  the  fall  of  Athens  these  rude  northerners  were  fast 
taking  on  the  Greek  civiHzation. 

Philip  (359-336  b.  c.).— When  Philip  came  to  the  throne 
of  Macedonia  he  determined  to  be  recognized,  not  only  as  a 
Greek  among  Greeks,  but  as  the  head  of  all  Greece.  To 
this  he  bent  every  energy  of  his  strong,  crafty,  and  cruel 
mind.  He  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  his  kingdom,  and 
consolidated  it  into  a  compact  empire.  He  thoroughly 
organized  his  army,  and  formed  the  famous  Macedonian 

*  He  was  pierced  with  a  javelin,  and  to  extract  the  weapon  would  cause  his  death 
by  bleeding.  Being  carried  out  of  the  battle,  like  a  true  soldier  he  asked  first  about 
his  shield,  then  waited  to  learn  the  issue  of  the  contest.  Hearing  the  cries  of  vic- 
tory, he  drew  out  the  shaft  with  his  own  hand,  and  died  a  few  moments  after. 


359  B.  c] 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY. 


37 


PORTRAIT  OK  PHILIP  OF  MACEDON. 


phalanx*  that,  for  two  centuries  after,  decided  the  day  on 

every  field  on  which  it  appeared.      He  craftily  mixed  in 

Grecian  affairs,  and  took  such  an  active  part  in  the  Sacred 

War  f  (355-346  B.  c.)  that  he  was 

admitted     to     the    Amphictyonic 

Council     (p.    3).        Demosthenes, 

the  great  Athenian  orator,  seemed 

the  only  man  clear-headed  enough 

to    detect    Philip's    scheme.      His 

eloquent  Philippics  (p.  61)  at  last 

aroused  his  apathetic  countrymen 

to  a  sense  of  their  danger.     The 

Second  Sacred  War,  declared  by  the 

Amphictyons  against  the  Locrians 

for  alleged  sacrilege,  having  been 

intrusted  to  Philip,  that  monarch 

marched  through  Thermopylae,  and 

his  designs  against  the  liberties  of  Greece  became  but  too 

evident.     Thebes  and  Athens  now  took  the  field.     But  at 

ClicBronea  (338  b.  c.)  the  Macedonian  phalanx  annihilated 

their  armies,  the  Sacred  Band  perishing  to  a  man. 

Greece  was  prostrate  at  Philip's  feet.     In  a  congress  of 

*  The  peculiar  feature  of  this  hody  was  that  the  men  were  armed  with  huge 
lances,  twenty-one  feet  long.  The  lines  were  placed  so  that  the  front  rank,  composed 
of  the  strongest  and  most  experienced  soldiers,  was  protected  by  a  bristling  mass  of 
five  rows  of  lance-points,  their  own  extending  fifteen  feet  before  them,  and  the  rest 
twelve,  nine,  six,  and  three  feet  respectively.  Formed  in  a  solid  mass,  usually  six- 
teen files  deep,  shield  touching  shield,  and  marching  with  the  precision  of  a  machine, 
the  phalanx  charge  was  irresistible.  The  Spartans  carrying  spears  only  about  half 
as  long  could  not  reach  the  Macedonians. 

t  The  pretext  for  the  First  Sacred  War  is  said  to  have  been  that  the  Phocians 
had  cultivated  lands  consecrated  to  Apollo.  The  Amphictyonic  Council,  led  by 
Thebes,  inflicted  a  heavy  fine  upon  them.  Thereupon  they  seized  the  Temple  at 
Delphi,  and  finally,  to  furnish  means  for  prolonging  the  struggle,  sold  the  riches 
accumulated  from  the  pious  offerings  of  the  men  of  a  better  day.  The  Grecians 
were  first  shocked  and  then  demoralized  by  this  impious  act.  The  holiest  objects 
circulated  among  the  people  and  were  put  to  common  uses.  All  reverence  for  the 
gods  and  sacred  things  was  lost.  The  ancient  patriotism  went  with  the  religion, 
and  Hellas  had  forever  fallen  from  her  high  estate.  Everywhere  her  sons  were  ready 
to  sell  their  swords  to  the  highest  bidder. 


38  OEEECE.  [337-6B.C. 

all  the  states  except  Sparta,  he  was  appointed  to  lead  their 
united  forces  against  Persia.  But  while  preparing  to  start 
he  was  assassinated  at  his  daughter's  marriage  feast. 


A  TETRADRACHM  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 

Alexander,'''  Philip's  son,  succeeded  to  his  throne  and 
ambitious  projects.     Though  only  twenty  years  old  he  was 

*  On  the  day  of  Alexander's  birth,  Philip  received  news  of  the  defeat  of  the 
niyrians,  and  that  his  horses  had  won  in  the  Olympian  chariot-races.  Overwhelmed 
by  such  fortune  the  monarch  exclaimed,  "  Great  Jupiter,  send  me  only  some  slight 
reverse  in  return  for  so  many  blessings  1 "  That  same  day  also  the  famous  Temple 
of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  burned  by  an  incendiary.  Alexander  was  wont  to  consider 
this  an  omen  that  he  should  himself  kindle  a  flame  in  Asia.  On  his  father's  side  he  was 
said  to  be  descended  from  Hercules,  and  on  his  mother's  from  Achilles.  He  became 
a  pupil  of  Aristotle  (p.  64),  to  whom  Philip  wrote  announcing  Alexander's  birth, 
saying  that  he  knew  not  which  gave  him  the  greater  pleasure,  that  he  had  a  son  or 
that  Aristotle  could  be  his  son's  teacher.  The  young  prince  at  fourteen  tamed  the 
noble  horse  Bucephalus,  which  no  one  at  the  Macedonian  court  dared  to  mount;  at 
sixteen,  he  saved  his  father  in  battle  ;  and  at  eighteen,  defeated  the  Sacred  Band 
upon  the  field  at  Chaeronea.  Before  setting  out  upon  his  Persian  expedition  he  con- 
sulted the  oracle  at  Delphi.  The  priestess  refused  to  go  to  the  shrine,  as  it  was  an 
unlucky  day.  Alexander  thereupon  grasped  her  arm.  "Ah,  my  son,"  exclaimed 
she,  "thou  art  irresistible  1 "  "Enough,"  shouted  the  delighted  monarch,  "I  ask 
no  other  reply."  He  was  equally  happy  of  thought  at  Gordium.  Here  he  was  shown 
the  famous  Gordian  knot,  which,  it  was  said,  no  one  could  untie  except  the  one  des- 
tined to  be  the  conqueror  of  Asia.  He  tried  to  unravel  the  cord,  but  failing,  drew 
his  sword  and  severed  it  at  a  blow.  Alexander  always  retained  a  warm  love  for  his 
mother,  Olympias.  She,  however,  was  a  violent  woman.  Antip'ater,  who  was  left 
governor  of  Macedon  during  Alexander's  absence,  wrote  complaining  of  her  conduct. 
"  Ah,"  said  the  king,  "  Antipater  does  not  know  that  one  tear  of  a  mother  will  blot 
out  ten  thousand  of  his  letters."  Unfortunately,  the  hero  who  subdued  the  known 
world  had  never  conquered  himself.  In  a  moment  of  drunken  passion  he  slew  Clitus, 
his  dearest  friend,  who  had  saved  his  life  in  battle.  He  shut  himself  up  for  days 
after  this  horrible  deed,  lamenting  his  crime,  and  refusing  to  eat  or  to  transact  any 
business.  Yet  in  soberness  and  calmness  he  tortured  and  hanged  Callisthones,  a 
Greek  author,  because  he  would  not  worship  him  as  a  god.  Carried  away  by  his 
success,  he  finally  sent  to  Greece  ordering  his  name  to  be  enrolled  among  the  deities. 
Said  the  Spartans  in  reply,  "  If  Alexander  will  be  a  god,  let  him.** 


336B.C.]  tHE     l»OLIi:iCAL    SlSTOKY.  30 

more  than  his  father's  equal  in  statesmanship  and  military 
skill.  Thebes  having  revolted,  he  leveled  the  city  to  the 
ground,  and  sold  its  inhabitants  as  slaves,  sparing  only  the 
house  of  Pindar  the  poet.  This  terrible  example  quieted 
all  opposition.  He  was  at  once  made  captain-general  of  the 
Grecian  forces  to  invade  Persia,  and  soon  after  he  set  out 
upon  that  perilous  expedition  from  which  he  never  returned. 
Alexander's  Marches  and  Conquests. — In  334  b.  c. 
Alexander  crossed  the  Hellespont  with  thirty  thousand  in- 
fantry and  four  thousand  five  hundred  cayalry.  He  was  the 
first  to  leap  on  the  Asiatic  shore.*  Pressing  eastward,  he 
defeated  the  Persians  in  two  great  battles,  one  at  the  river 
Granicus,  and  the  other  at  Issus,  \  Then  he  turned  south 
and  besieged  Tyre.  To  reach  the  island  on  which  the  city 
stood,  he  built  a  stone  pier  two  hundred  feet  wide  and  half 
a  mile  long,  on  which  he  rolled  his  ponderous  machines, 
breached  the  wall,  and  carried  the  place  by  a  desperate 
assault.  Thence  passing  into  Eg3rpt,  that  country  fell  with- 
out a  blow.  Here  he  founded  the  famous  city.of  Alexandria. 
Next  he  resumed  his  eastern  march,  and  routed  the  Persian 
host,  a  million  strong,  on  the  field  of  ArMla.  The  Greeks 
entered  Babylon  in  triumph.  Persepolis  was  burned  to 
avenge  the  destruction  of  Athens  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  before  (p.  20).  Darius  was  pursued  so  closely  that, 
to  prevent  his  falling  into  the  conqueror's  possession,  he  was 
slain  by  a  noble. 

*  Alexander  was  a  great  lover  of  Homer  and  always  slept  with  a  copy  of  the  Mad 
under  his  pillow.  While  his  army  was  now  landing  he  visited  the  site  of  Troy,  offered 
a  sacrifice  at  the  tomh  of  Achilles,  hung  up  his  own  shield  in  the  temple,  and  taking 
down  one  said  to  have  helonged  to  a  hero  of  the  Trojan  War,  ordered  it  to  be 
henceforth  carried  before  him  in  battle. 

t  Just  before  this  engagement  Alexander  was  attacked  by  a  fever  in  consequence 
of  bathing  in  the  cold  water  of  the  Cydnus.  While  sick  he  was  informed  that  his 
physician  Philip  had  been  bribed  by  Darius  to  poison  him.  As  Philip  came  into  the 
room  Alexander  handed  him  the  letter  containing  the  warning,  and  then,  before  the 
doctor  could  speak,  swallowed  the  medicine.  His  confidence  was  rewarded  by  a 
speedy  recovery. 


40  GREECE. 


B.C. 


The  mysterious  East  still  alluring  him  on,  Alexander 
exploring,  conquering,*  founding  cities,  at  last  reached  the 
river  Hyph'asis,  where  his  army  refused  to  proceed  further 
in  the  unknown  regions.  Instead  of  going  directly  back, 
he  built  vessels,  and  descended  the  Indus ;  thence  the  fleet 
cruised  along  the  coast,  while  the  troops  returned  through 
Gedrosia  (Beloochistan)  suffering  fearful  hardships  in  its 
inhospitable  deserts. f  When  he  reached  Babylon,  ten  years 
had  elapsed  since  he  crossed  the  Hellespont. 

The  next  season,  while  just  setting  out  from  Babylon 
upon  a  new  expedition  into  Arabia,  he  died  (323  B.C.). 
With  him  perished  his  schemes  and  his  empire. 

Alexander's  plan  was  to  mold  the  diverse  nations 
which  he  had  conquered  into  one  vast  empire,  with  the 
capital  at  Babylon.  Having  been  the  Cyrus,  he  desired  to 
be  the  Darius  of  the  Persians.  He  sought  to  break  down 
the  distinctions  between  the  Greek  and  the  Persian.  He 
married  the  Princess  Koxana,  the  *^  Pearl  of  the  East," 
and  induced  many  of  his  army  to  take  Persian  wives.  He 
enlisted  twenty  thousand  Persians  into  the  Macedonian 
phalanx,  and  appointed  natives  to  high  office.  He  wore  the 
Eastern  dress,  and  adopted  in  his  court  Oriental  ceremonies. 
He  respected  the  rehgion  and  the  government  of  the  various 
countries,  restrained  the  satraps,  and  ruled  more  beneficently 
than  their  own  monarchs. 

The  Results  of  the  thirteen  years  of  Alexander's  reign 
have  not  yet  disappeared.     Great  cities  were  founded  by 

*  Poms,  an  Indian  prince,  held  the  banlcs  of  the  Hydaspes  with  three  hundred 
war-chariots  and  two  hundred  elephants.  The  Indians  being  defeated,  Porus  waa 
brought  into  Alexander's  presence.  When  aslied  what  he  wished,  Porus  replied, 
"  Nothing  except  to  be  treated  like  a  king."  Alexander,  struck  by  the  answer,  gave 
him  his  liberty  and  enlarged  his  territory. 

t  One  day  while  Alexander  was  parched  with  thirst  a  drink  of  water  was  given 
him,  but  he  threw  it  on  the  ground  lest  the  siglit  of  his  pleasure  should  aggravate  the 
enffering  of  his  men. 


336-323  B.C.]    THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY. 


41 


him,  or  his  generals,  that  are  still  marts  of  trade.  Com- 
merce received  new  life.  Greek  culture  and  civilization 
spread  over  the  Orient,  and  the  Greek  language  became,  if 
not  the  common  speech,  at  least  the  medium  of  communi- 
cation among  educated  people  from  the  Adriatic  to  the 
Indus.  So  it  came  about  that  when  Greece  had  lost  her 
national  liberty  she  suddenly  attained,  through  her  con- 
querors, a  world-wide  empire  over  the  minds  of  men. 

But  while  Asia  became  thus  Hellenized,  the  East  exerted 
a  reflex  influence  upon  Hellas.    As  Eawlinson  well  remarks: 

"  The  Oriental  habits  of  servility  and  adulation  superseded  the  old  free-spoken 
independence  and  manliness  ;  patriotism  and  public  spirit  disappeared ;  luxury 
increased ;  literature  lost  its  vigor ;  art  deteriorated ;  and  the  people  sank  into  a 
nation  of  pedants,  parasites,  and  adventurers." 


ALEXAISTDER'S    SUCCESSORS. 

Alexander's  principal  generals,  soon  after  his  death, 
divided  his  empire  among  themselves.  A  mortal  struggle 
of  twenty-two  years  followed,  during  which  these  officers, 
released  from  the  strong  hand  of  their  master,  "fought, 
quarreled,  grasped,  and  wrangled  like  loosened  tigers  in  an 
amphitheatre."  The  greed  and  jealousy  of  the  generals,  or 
kings  as  they  were  called,  were  equaled  only  by  the  treachery 
of  their  men.  Finally,  by  the  decisive  battle  of  Ipsus 
(301  B.  c),  the  conflict  was  ended,  and  the  following  distri- 
bution of  the  territory  made  : 


Ptolemy 
received  Egypt,  and 
conquered  all  of  Pal- 
estine,     Phoenicia, 
and  Cyprus. 


Lysim'acJms 
received  Thrace  and 
nearly  all   of    Asia 
Minor. 


Sdeucua 
received  Syria  and 
the  East,  and  he  af- 
terward conquered 
Asia  Minor,  Lysim- 
achus  being  slain. 


Cassander 
received     Macedon 
and  Greece. 


Ptolemy  founded  a  flourishing  Greek  kingdom  in  Egypt. 
The  Greeks,  attracted  by  his  benign  rule,  flocked  thither  in 


4:2  GKEECE.  [323  b.  a 

multitudes.  The  Egyptians  were  protected  in  their  ancient 
religion,  laws,  and  customs,  so  that  the  stiff-necked  rebels 
against  the  Persian  rule  quietly  submitted  to  the  Macedonian. 
The  Jews  *  in  large  numbers  found  safety  under  his  paternal 
government.  This  threefold  population  gave  to  the  second 
civilization  which  grew  up  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  a  pecu- 
liar and  cosmopolitan  character.  The  statues  of  the  Greek 
gods  were  mingled  with  those  of  Osiris  and  Isis ;  the  same 
hieroglyphic  word  was  used  to  express  a  Greek  and  a  lower 
Egyptian;  and  even  the  Jews  forgot  the  language  of 
Palestine,  and  talked  Greek.  Alexandria  became  under  the 
Ptolemies,  what  Memphis  was  under  the  Rameses — a  center 
of  commerce  and  civilization.  The  building  of  a  commo- 
dious harbor  and  a  superb  light-house,  and  the  opening  of 
a  canal  to  the  Eed  Sea,  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  trade 
with  Arabia  and  India.  Grecian  architects  made  Alexandria, 
with  its  temples,  obelisks,  palaces,  and  theatres,  the  most 
beautiful  city  of  the  times.  Its  white  marble  Pharos  was 
one  of  the  Seveu  Wonders  of  the  World.  At  the  center  of 
the  city,  where  its  two  grand  avenues  crossed  each  other,  in 
the  midst  of  gardens  and  fountains,  stood  the  Mausoleum, 
which  contained  the  body  of  Alexander,  embalmed  in  the 
Egyptian  manner. 

The  Alexandrian  Museum  and  Library  founded  by 
Ptolemy  I.  (Sotor),  but  gi'eatly  extended  by  Ptolemy  II. 
(Philadelphus),  and  enriched  by  Ptolemy  III.  (Euergetes), 
were  the  grandest  monuments  of  this  Greco-Egyptian 
kingdom.  The  Library  comprised  at  one  time,  in  all  its 
collections,  seven  hundred  thousand  volumes.  The  Museum 
was  a  stately  marble  edifice  surrounded  by  a  portico,  beneath 
which  the  philosophers  walked  and  conversed.    The  pro- 

♦  They  had  a  temple  at  Alexandria,  similar  to  the  one  at  Jerusalem,  and  for  their 
use  the  Old  Testament  was  translated  into  Greek  (275-250  b.  c).  From  the  nimiber 
of  BCholars  engaged  in  thlB  work  it  is  termed  the  Septuagiut  version. 


323-222  B.C.]     THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  43 

fessors  and  teachers  were  all  kept  at  the  public  expense. 
There  were  connected  with  this  institution  a  botanical  and 
a  zoological  garden,  an  astronomical  observatory,  and  a 
chemical  laboratory.  To  this  grand  University  resorted  the 
scholars  of  the  world.  (See  Steele's  Astronomy,  p.  19.)  At 
one  time  in  its  history,  there  were  in  attendance  as  many  as 
fourteen  thousand  persons.  While  wars  shook  Europe  and 
Asia,  Archimedes  and  Hero  the  philosophers,  Apelles  the 
painter,  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy  the  astronomers,  Euclid 
the  geometer,  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo  the  geographers, 
Manetho  the  historian,  Aristophanes  the  rhetorician,  and 
Apollonius  the  poet,  labored  in  quiet  upon  the  peaceful 
banks  of  the  Nile.  Probably  no  other  school  of  learning 
has  ever  exerted  so  wide  an  influence.  When  Caesar  wished 
to  revise  the  calendar,  he  sent  for  Sosigenes  the  Alexandrian. 
Even  the  early  Christian  church  drew,  from  what  the  ancients 
loved  to  call  '^the  divine  school  at  Alexandria,"  some  of  its 
most  eminent  Fathers,  as  Origen  and  Athanasius.  Modern 
science  itself  dates  its  rise  from  the  study  of  Nature  that 
began  under  the  shadow  of  the  Pyramids. 

Last  of  the  Ptolemies, — The  first  three  Ptolemies  were 
judicious  monarchs.  Then  came  ten  weak-minded  and 
often  corrupt  successors.  The  last  Ptolemy  married  his 
sister,  the  famous  and  fated  Cleopatra,  and  shared  with  her 
the  throne.  At  her  death  Egypt  became  a  province  of 
Bome  (30  b.  c). 

Seleucus  was  a  conqueror,  and  his  kingdom  at  one  time 
stretched  from  the  ^gean  to  India,  comprising  nearly  all 
the  former  Persian  empire.  He  was  a  famous  founder  of 
cities,  nine  of  which  were  named  for  himself,  an4  sixteen 
for  his  son  Antiochus.  One  of  the  latter,  Antioch  in  Syria 
(Acts  xi.  26,  etc.),  became  the  capital  instead  of  Babylon. 
The  descendants  of  Seleucus  (Seleucidae)  were  unable  to 


44  a  R  E  E  C  E .  [65  B.  c. 

retain  his  yast  conquests,  and  one  province  after  another 
dropped  away  until  the  wide  empire  finally  shrank  into 
Syria,  which  was  grasped  by  the  Eomans  (65  B.  c). 

Several  independent  States  arose  in  Asia  during  this 
eventful  period.  Perganms  became  an  independent  king- 
dom on  the  death  of  Seleucus  I.  (280  b.  c),  and,  mainly 
through  the  favor  of  Eome,  absorbed  Lydia,  Phrygia,  and 
other  provinces.  The  city  of  Pergamus,  with  its  school  of 
literature  and  magnificent  public  buildings,  rivaled  the 
glories  of  Alexandria.  The  rapid  growth  of  its  library  so 
aroused  the  jealousy  of  Ptolemy  that  he  forbade  the  export 
of  papyrus ;  whereupon  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  resorted 
to  parchment,  which  he  used  so  extensively  for  writing  that 
this  material  took  the  name  of  pergamena.  By  the  will 
of  the  last  king  of  Pergamus,  the  kingdom  at  last  fell  to 
Rome.  Partliia  arose  about  .255  b.  c.  It  gradually  spread 
until  at  one  time  it  reached  from  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates. 
Never  absorbed  into  the  Roman  dominion,  it  remained 
through  the  palmy  days  of  that  empire  its  dreaded  foe. 
The  twenty-ninth  of  the  Arsacidae,  as  its  kings  were  called, 
was  driven  from  the  throne  by  Artaxerxes,  a  descendant  of 
the  ancient  line  of  Persia,  and,  after  an  existence  of  about 
five  centuries,  the  Parthian  empire  came  to  an  end.  It  was 
succeeded  by  the  new  Persian  monarchy  or  kingdom  of  the 
Sassanidae  (226-652  A.  d.).  Pontus,  a  rich  kingdom  of  Asia 
Minor,  became  famous  through  the  long  wars  its  great  king 
Mithridates  V.  carried  on  with  Rome. 

Greece  and  Macedonia,  after  Alexander's  time,  pre- 
sented little  historic  interest.*  The  chief  feature  was  that 
nearly  all  the  Grecian  states,  except  Sparta,  in  order  to  make 

*  In  279  B.  o.  there  was  a  fearful  irruption  of  the  Ganls  under  Brennus.  (See 
Brief  History  of  France,  p.  10.)  Greece  was  ravaged  by  the  barbarians.  They  were 
finally  expelled,  and  a  remnant  founded  a  province  in  Asia  Minor  named  Gallatia,  to 
whose  people  in  later  times  St.  Paul  directed  one  of  his  Epistles. 


THE     POLITICAL     HISTORY.  45 

head  against  Macedonia,  formed  leagues  similar  to  that  of 
our  government  during  the  Revolution.  The  principal  ones 
were  the  Achcean  and  the  JEtolian.  But  the  old  feuds  and 
petty  strifes  continued  until  all  were  swallowed  up  in  the 
world-wide  dominion  of  Rome. 

Athens  under  the  Romans  was  prosperous.  Other 
centers  of  learning  arose — Alexandria,  Marseilles,  Tarsus ; 
but  still  scholars  from  all  parts  of  the  extended  empire  of 
Rome  flocked  to  Athens  to  complete  their  education.  True, 
war  had  laid  waste  the  groves  of  Plato  and  the  garden  in 
which  Epicurus  lived,  yet  the  charm  of  old  associations 
continued  to  linger  around  these  sacred  places,  and  the 
Four  Schools  of  Philosophy  (p.  63)  maintained  their  hold 
on  public  thought.*  The  Emperor  Hadrian  established 
a  library,  and  built  a  pantheon  and  a  gymnasium.  The 
Antonines  began  a  system  of  state  endowments.  So  late  as 
the  close  of  the  4th  century  a  writer  describes  the  airs  put 
on  by  those  who  thought  themselves  "demigods,  so  proud 
are  they  of  having  looked  on  the  Academy  and  Lyceum, 
and  the  Porch  where  Zeno  reasoned."  With  the  fall  of 
Paganism,  however,  and  the  growth  of  legal  studies — so  pecu- 
liar to  the  Roman  character — Athens  lost  her  importance, 
and  her  schools  were  closed  by  Justinian  (529  A.  d.). 

*  It  is  strange  to  hear  Cicero,  in  De  Finibus,  speak  of  these  scenes  as  already  in 
his  time  classic  ground :  "  After  hearing  Antiochus  in  the  Ptolemaeum,  in  the  com- 
pany of  Piso  and  my  brother,  and  Pomponius  and  my  cousin  Lucius,  for  whom  I  had 
a  brother's  love,  we  agreed  to  take  our  evening  walk  in  the  Academy.  So  we  all  met 
at  Piso's  house,  and,  chatting  as  we  went,  walked  the  six  stadia  between  the  Gate 
Dipylum  and  the  Academy.  When  we  reached  the  scenes  so  justly  famous  we 
found  the  quietude  we  craved.  'Is  it  a  natural  sentiment,'  asked  Piso,  or  a  mere 
illusion,  which  makes  us  more  affected  when  we  see  the  spots  frequented  by  men 
worth  remembering  than  when  we  merely  hear  their  deeds  or  read  their  works  ?  It 
is  thus  that  I  feel  touched  at  present,  for  I  think  of  Plato,  who,  as  we  are  told,  was 
wont  to  lecture  here.  Not  only  do  those  gardens  of  his,  close  by,  remind  me  of  him, 
but  I  seem  to  fancy  him  before  my  eyes.  Here  stood  Speusippus,  here  Xenocrates, 
here  his  hearer  Polemon — '  'Yes,'  said  Quintus,  'what  you  say,  Piso,  is  quite 
true,  for  as  I  was  coming  hither,  Colonus,  yonder,  called  my  thoughts  away,  and  made 
me  fancy  that  I  saw  its  inmate  Sophocles,  for  whom  you  know  my  passionate  admi- 
ration.' '  And  I,  too,'  said  Pomponius,  '  whom  you  often  attack  for  my  devotion  to 
Epicurus,  spend  much  time  in  his  garden,  which  we  passed  lately  in  our  walk.'  " 


46  GREECE 


2.    THE    CIVILIZATION. 

Bt  Mrs.  J.  DORMAN  STEELE. 

Athens  and  Sparta. — Though  the  Greeks  comprised  many 
distinct  tribes,  inhabiting  separate  cities,  countries,  and  islands, 
having  different  laws,  dialects,  manners  and  customs,  Athens  and 
Sparta  were  the  great  centers  of  Hellenic  life.  These  two  cities 
differed  widely  from  each  other  in  thought,  habits,  and  tastes. 
Sparta  had  no  part  in  Grecian  art  or  literature.  "  There  was  no 
Spartan  sculptor,  no  Laconian  painter,  no  Lacedaemonian  poet." 
From  Athens,  on  the  contrary,  came  the  world's  master-pieces  In 
poetry,  oratory,  sculpture,  and  architecture. 


GREEK  GALLEY  WITH  THREE   BANKS  OF  OARS. 

Society. — The  Athenians  boasted  that  tbey  were  Autochthons,* 
i.  <?.,  sprung  from  the  soil  where  they  lived;  and  that  their  descent 
was  direct  from  the  sons  of  the  gods.  The  ancient  Attic  tribes  were 
divided  into  phratries  or  fraternities;  the  phratries  into  gentes  or 
clans ;  and  the  gentes  into  hearths  or  families.  The  four  tribes  were 
bound  together  by  the  common  worship  of  Apollo  Patrons,  reputed 
father  of  their  mutual  ancestor,  Ion.  Each  phratry  had  its.  partic- 
ular sacred  rites  and  civil  compact,  but  all  the  phratries  of  the  same 
tribe  joined  periodically  in  certain  ceremonies.  Each  gens  had  also 
its  own  ancestral  hero  or  god,  its  exclusive  privilege  of  priesthood, 

*  In  recognition  of  this  belief  they  wore  in  their  haur,  as  an  ornament,  a  golden 
grasshopper. 


THE     CIVILIZATION.  47 

its  compact  of  protection  and  defence,  and  its  special  burial-place. 
Last  of  all,  every  family  had  its  private  worship,  and  commemorated 
its  own  ancestors,  allowing  no  stranger  to  intrude.  This  association 
of  houses  and  brotherhoods  was  a  powerful  factor  in  the  early  social 
and  political  life  of  Greece. 

Athens  in  her  golden  days  had,  as  we  have  already  seen,  neither 
king  nor  aristocracy.  Every  free  citizen  possessed  a  voice  in 
the  general  government,  and  zealously  maintained  his  rights  and 
liberty  as  a  member  of  the  state.  Although  to  belong  to  an  old  and 
noble  house  gave  a  certain  position  among  all  ti-ue-born  Athenians, 
there  was  little  of  the  usual  exclusiveness  attending  great  wealth  or 
long  pedigree.  An  Athenian  might  be  forced  from  poverty  to  wear 
an  old  and  tattered  cloak,  or  be  only  the  son  of  a  humble  image- 
maker,  as  was  Socrates,  or  of  a  cutler,  as  wa^  Demosthenes,  yet,  if 
he  had  wit,  bravery,  and  talent,  he  was  as  welcome  to  the  brilliant 
private  saloons  of  Athens  as  were  the  richest  and  noblest  of  citizens. 

Trade  and  Merchandise  were  as  unpopular  in  most  parts  of 
Greece  as  in  Persia.  There  was  a  settled  idea  in  the  Greek  mind 
that  only  arms,  agriculture,  music,  and  gymnastics  were  occupations 
worthy  of  a  freeman.  To  profit  by  retail  trade  was  looked  upon  as 
a  sort  of  cheating,  and  handicrafts  were  despised  because  they  com- 
pelled men  to  stay  at  home  to  work,  and  gave  no  leisure  for  athletic 
exercises  or  social  culture.  In  Sparta,  where  even  agriculture  was 
despised  and  all  property  was  held  in  common,  an  artisan  had  neither 
public  influence  nor  political  rights  ;  while  in  Thebes,  no  one  who 
had  sold  in  the  market  within  ten  years  was  allowed  part  in  the 
government.  Even  in  democratic  Athens,  where  extensive  interests 
in  ship-building  and  navigation  produced  a  strong  sentiment  in  favor 
of  commerce,  the  poor  man  who  lived  on  less  than  ten  cents  a  day, 
earned  by  serving  on  juries*  or  in  other  public  capacities,  looked 
with  disdain  on  the  practical  mechanic  and  tradesman.  Conse- 
quently, most  of  the  Athenian  stores  and  shops  belonged  to  aliens, 

*  There  were  ten  courts  in  Athens,  employing,  when  all  were  open,  six  thousand 
jurymen.  The  Athenians  had  such  a  passion  for  hearing  and  deciding  judicial  and 
political  questions  that  they  clamored  for  seats  in  the  jury-hox.  Greek  literature 
ahounds  with  satires  on  this  national  peculiarity.  In  one  of  Lucian's  dialogues, 
Menippus  is  represented  as  looking  down  from  the  moon  and  watching  the  character- 
istic pursuits  of  men.  "  The  northern  hordes  were  fighting,  the  Egyptians  were 
plowing,  the  Phoenicians  were  carrying  their  merchandise  over  the  sea,  the  Spartans 
were  whipping  their  children,  and  the  Athenians  were  sitting  in  the  jury-box.''''  So 
also  Aristophanes,  in  his  satire  called  The  Clouds,  has  his  hero  (Strepsiades)  visit  the 
School  of  Socrates,  where  he  is  shown  a  map  of  the  world. 

Student.—"  And  here  lies  Athens." 

Strep.—"  Athens  1  nay,  go  to That  cannot  be.   I  see  no  law-courts  sitting  /  " 


48 


GREECE. 


who  paid  heavy  taxes  and  made  large  profits.  Solon  sought  to 
encourage  the  manufacturing  industries  and  himself  engaged  in 
commerce,  for  which  he  traveled ;  Aristotle  kept  a  druggist's  shop 
in  Athens ;  and  even  Plato,  who  share4  the  national  prejudice  against 
artisans,  speculated  in  oil  during  his  Egyptian  journey. 

Sparta  with  her  two  kings,  powerful  ephors,  and  landed  aris- 
tocracy, presents  a  marked  contrast  to  Athens. 

The  two  Kings  were  supposed  to  have  descended  by  different 
lines  from  the  gods,  and  this  belief  preserved  to  them  what  little 
authority  they  retained  under  the  supremacy  of  the  ephors.  They 
offered  the  monthly  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  consulted  the  Delphian 
oracle — which  always  upheld  their  dignity — and  had  nominal  com- 
mand of  the  army.  On  the  other  hand,  war  and  its  details  were 
decided  by  the  ephors,  two  of  whom  accompanied  one  king  on  the 
march.  The  kings  were  obliged  monthly  to  bind  themselves  by  an 
oath  not  to  exceed  the  laws,  the  ephors  also  swearing  on  that  con- 
dition to  uphold  the  royal  authority.  In  case  of  default  the  kings 
were  tried  and  severely  fined,  or  had  their  houses  burned. 

The  population  of  Laconia,  as  we  have  seen,  comprised  Spartans, 
perioeki,  and  helots  (p.  7). 

The  Spartans  lived  in  the  city,  and  were 
the  only  persons  eligible  to  public  oflSce.  So 
long  as  they  submitted  to  the  prescribed 
discipline  and  paid  their  quota  to  the  public 
mess,  they  were  Equals.  Those  who  were 
unable  to  pay  their  assessment,  lost  their 
franchise,  and  were  cdX\Qd  Inferiors ;  but  by 
meeting  their,  public  obligation  they  could 
at  any  time  regain  their  privileges. 

The  PerioM  were  also  freemen.  They  in- 
habited the  hundred  townships  of  Laconia, 
having  more  or  less  liberty  of  local  manage- 
ment, but  subject  always  to  orders  from 
Sparta,  the  ephors  having  power  to  inflict 
the  death  penalty  upon  them  without  form 
of  trial. 

The  Helot  was  a  serf  bound  to  the  soil,  and 
belonged  not  so  much  to  the  master  as  to  the 
state.  He  was  the  pariah  of  the  land.  If  he 
dared  to  wear  a  Spartan  bonnet,  or  even  to  sing  a  Spartan  song,  he 
was  put  to  death.  The  old  Egyptian  kings  thinned  the  ranks  of 
their  surplus  rabble  by  that  merciless  system  of  forced  labor  which 


GRECIAN  PEASANT. 


THE     CIVILIZATIOIf.  49 

produced  tbe  pyramids ;  the  Spartans  did  not  put  the  blood  of  their 
helots  to  such  useful  account,  but  when  they  became  too  powerful 
used  simply  the  knife  and  the  dagger.*  The  helot  served  in  war  as 
a  light-armed  soldier,  attached  to  a  Spartan  or  pericekian  hoplite.t 
Sometimes  he  was  clothed  in  heavy  armor,  and  was  given  freedom 
for  superior  bravery.  A  freed  helot,  however,  was  by  no  means 
equal  to  a  perioekus,  and  his  known  courage  made  him  more  than 
ever  a  man  to  be  watched. 

Literature. — In  considering  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Babylonian, 
and  Persian  literature  we  have  had  only  fragments,  possessing  little 
value  for  the  present  age  except  as  historical  curiosities,  or  as  a  means 
of  insight  into  the  life  and  attainments  of  the  people.  Grecian 
literature,  on  the  contrary,  exists  to-day  as  a  model.  From  it  poets 
continue  to  draw  their  highest  inspiration  ;  its  first  great  historian  is 
still  known  as  the  "  Father  of  History  ";  its  philosophy  seems  to 
touch  every  phase  of  thought  and  argument  of  which  the  human 
mind  is  capable  ;  and  its  oratory  has  never  been  surpassed.  So  vast 
a  subject  should  be  studied  by  itself,  and  in  this  book  we  can  merely 
furnish  a  nucleus  about  which  the  pupil  may  gather  in  his  future 
reading  the  rich  stores  which  await  his  industry.  For  convenience 
we  shall  classify  it  under  the  several  heads  of  Poetry,  History,  Ora- 
tory, and  Philosophy. 

Poetry. — Epics  (Narrative  poems). — The  earliest  Grecian  litera- 
ture of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  is  in  verse.  In  the  dawn  of 
Hellas,  hymns  of  praise  to  the  gods  were  performed  in  choral  dances 
about  shrines  and  altars,  and  heroic  legends  woven  into  ballads  were 
musically  chanted  to  the  sound  of  a  four-stringed  lyre.  With  this 
rhythmical  story-telling,  the  Rhapsodists  (ode-stitchers)  used  to  de- 
light the  listening  multitudes  on  festive  occasions  in  princely  halls, 

*  The  helots  were  once  free  Greeks  like  their  masters,  whom  they  hated  so  bitterly 
that  there  was  a  saying,  "  A  helot  coald  eat  a  Spartan  raw."  They  wore  a  sheepskin 
g:arment  and  dogskin  cap  as  the  contemptnons  badge  of  their  slavery.  There  was 
constant  danger  of  revolt,  and  from  time  to  time  the  bravest  of  them  were  secretly 
killed  by  a  band  of  detectives  appointed  by  the  government  for  that  purpose.  Some- 
times a  wholesale  assassination  was  deemed  necessary.  Duriog  the  Peloponnesian 
War  the  helots  had  shown  so  much  gallantry  in  battle  that  the  Spartan  authorities 
were  alarmed.  A  notice  was  issued  that  two  thousand  of  the  bravest— selected  by 
their  fellows— should  be  made  free.  There  was  great  rejoicing  among  the  deluded 
slaves,  and  the  happy  candidates,  garlanded  with  flowers,  were  marched  proudly 
through  the  streets  and  around  the  temples  of  the  gods.  Then  they  mysteriously 
disappeared  and  were  never  heard  of  more.  At  the  same  time  seven  hundred  other 
helots  were  sent  off  to  join  the  army,  and  the  Spartans  congratulated  themselves  on 
having  done  a  wise  and  prudent  deed. 

t  A  hoplite  was  a  heavy-armed  infantryman.  At  Platsea  every  Spartan  had  seven 
helots,  and  every  perioekus  one  helot  to  attend  him. 


50 


GREECE. 


at  Amphictyonic  gatherings,  and  at  religious  assemblies.    Among 

this  troup  of  wandering  minstrels  there  arose 

Homer*  (about  1000  B.C.), 
an  Asiatic  Greek,  whose  name 
has  become  immortal.  The 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  are  the 
grandest  epics  ever  written. 
The  first  contains  the  story 
of  the  siege  of  Troy  (p.  3)  ; 
the  second  narrates  the  wan- 
derings of  Ulysses,  king  of 
Ithaca,  on  his  return  from  the 
Trojan  Conquest.  Homer's 
style  is  simple,  artistic,  clear, 
and  vivid.  It  abounds  in 
sublime  description,  delicate 
pathos,  pure  domestic  senti- 
ment, and  noble  conceptions 

of  character.    His  verse  strangely  stirred  the  Grecian  heart.    The 

rhapsodist  Ion  describes  the  emotion  it  produced : 

"  When  that  which  I  recite  is  pathetic,  my  eyes  fill  with  tears  ;  when  it  is  awfal 
or  terrible,  my  hair  stands  on  end  and  my  heart  leaps.  The  spectators  also  weep  in 
sympathy,  and  look  aghast  with  terror." 

Antiquity  paid  divine  honors  to  Homer's  name;  the  cities  of 
Greece  owned  state  copies  of  his  works,  which  not  even  the  treasures 
of  kings  could  buy ;  and  his  poems  were  then,  as  now,  the  stand- 
ard classics  in  a  literary  education  (p.  67). 

*  According  to  tradition  Homer  was  a  schoolmaster  who,  wearying  of  confine- 
ment, began  to  travel.  Having  become  blind  in  the  course  of  his  wanderings  he 
returned  to  his  native  town,  where  he  composed  his  two  great  poems.  Afterward 
he  roamed  from  town  to  town,  singing  his  lays,  and  adding  to  them  as  his  inspiration 
came.  Somewhere  on  the  coast  of  the  Levant  he  died  and  was  buried.  His  birth- 
place is  unknown,  and,  according  to  an  old  Greek  epigram, 
"  Seven  rival  towns  contend  for  Homer  dead, 
Through  which  the  living  Homer  begged  his  bread." 
There  are  various  other  versions  of  his  life  and  history,  some  making  the  Iliad  the  pro- 
duction of  his  early  manhood,  and  the  Odyssey  of  his  old  age.  Many  learned  writers 
have  doubted  whether  a  real  Homer  ever  existed.  The  name  is  said  to  mean  "  com- 
piler," and  the  two  great  poems  ascribed  to  him  are  regarded  as  a  simple  collection 
of  heroic  legends,  recited  by  difiierent  bards  at  different  times,  and  finally  woven  into 
a  continuous  tale.  Some  critics  also  assert  that  the  story  of  the  Siege  of  Troy  is 
entirely  allegorical,  being  only  a  repetition  of  the  old  Egyptian  fancies,  "  founded  on 
the  daily  siege  of  the  east  by  the  solar  powers  that  every  evening  are  robbed  of  their 
brightest  treasures  in  the  west."  Dr.  Schliemann,  a  German  explorer,  who  claims  to 
have  unearthed  the  Homeric  Ilium,  and  to  have  even  found  among  its  ruins  the  orna- 
iftents  which  once  belonged  to  Priam,  believes  that  his  recent  remarkable  discoveries 
effectually  refute  all  skepticism  i»  regard  to  the  historic  reality  of  the  Siege  of  Troy. 


THE     CIVILIZATION.  51 

Emod,  who  lived  about  the  time  of  Homer,  wrote  two  long 
poems,  Worhs  and  Days*  and  Theogony.  In  the  former  he  details 
his  agricultural  experiences,  enriching  them  with  fable,  allegory,  and 
moral  reflections ;  the  latter  gives  an  account  of  the  origin  and  his- 
tory of  the  thirty  thousand  Grecian  gods,  and  the  creation  of  the 
world.  He  also  prepared  a  calendar  of  lucky  and  unlucky  days  for 
the  use  of  farmers  and  sailors.  The  Spartans,  who  detested  agricul- 
ture, called  Hesiod  the  "  poet  of  the  helots,"  in  contrast  with  Homer, 
"the  delight  of  warriors."  In  Athens,  however,  his  genius  was 
recognized,  and  his  poems  took  their  place  with  Homer's  in  the 
school  education  of  the  day. 

After  Homer  and  Hesiod  the  poetic  fire  in  Greece  slumbered  for 
over  two  hundred  years.  Then  arose  many  lyric,  elegiac,  and  epi- 
grammatic poets,  whose  works  exist  only  in  fragments. 

TyrtcBus^  "  the  lame  old  schoolmaster,"  invented  the  trumpet,  and 
gained  the  triumph  for  Sparta  f  in  the  Second  Messenian  "War  by  his 
impassioned  battle-songs. 

ArchiVochus  J  was  a  satirical  poet  of  great  reputation  among  the 
ancients,  his  birthday  being  celebrated  in  one  grand  festival  with 
that  of  Homer,  and  a  single  double-faced  statue  perpetuating  their 
memory.  He  invented  many  rhythmical  forms,  and  wrote  with  force 
and  elegance.  His  satire  was  so  caustic  that  he  is  said  to  have  driven 
a  whole  family  to  suicide  by  his  venomous  pen,  used  in  revenge  for 

*  The  WorTcs  and  Days  was  an  earnest  appeal  to  Hesiod's  dissipated  brother, 
whom  he  styles  the  "  simple,  foolish,  good-for-naught  Perses."  It  abounds  with 
arguments  for  honest  industry,  gives  numerous  suggestions  on  the  general  conduct 
of  society,  and  occasionally  dilates  on  the  vanity,  frivolity,  and  gossip  which  the 
author  imputes  to  womankind. 

t  The  story  is  that,  in  obedience  to  an  oracle,  the  Spartans  sent  to  Athens  for  a 
general  who  should  ensure  them  success.  The  jealous  Athenians  ironically  answered 
their  demand  with  the  deformed  Tyrtaeus.  Contrary  to  their  design,  the  cripple-poel 
proved  to  be  just  what  was  needed,  and  his  wise  advice  and  stirring  war-hymns 
spurred  the  Spartans  on  to  victory. 

X  One  of  the  greatest  of  soldier  poets,  Archilochus  proved  himself  a  coward  on 
the  battle-field,  afterward  proclaiming  the  fiact  in  a  kind  of  apologetic  bravado, 
thus: 

The  foeman  glories  o'er  my  shield, 

I  left  it  on  the  battle-field. 

I  threw  it  down  beside  the  wood. 

Unscathed  by  scars,  unstained  with  blood. 

And  let  him  glory ;  since  from  death 

Escaped,  I  keep  my  forfeit  breath. 

I  soon  may  find  at  little  cost 

As  good  a  shield  as  that  I  lost." 

When  he  afterward  visited  Sparta,  the  authorities,  taking  a  different  view  of  shield- 
dropping,  ordered  him  to  lea^•e  the  city  in  an  hour. 


52  GREECE. 

his  rejection  by  one  of  the  daughters.    He  likened  himself  to  a  por- 
cupine bristling  with  quills,  and  declared, 

"  One  great  thing  I  know, 
The  man  who  wrongs  me  to  requite  with  woe." 

Sappho^  "  the  Lesbian  nightingale,"  who  sang  of  love,  was  placed 
by  Aristotle  in  the  same  rank  with  Homer  and  Archilochus.  Plato 
called  her  the  tenth  muse,  and  it  is  asserted  that  Solon  on  hearing 
one  of  her  poems  prayed  the  gods  that  he  might  not  die  till  he  had 
found  time  to  learn  it  by  heart.  Sappho's  style  was  intense,  bril- 
liant, and  full  of  beautiful  imagery ;  her  language  was  said  to  have 
a  "  marvellous  suavity."  She  sought  to  elevate  her  countrywomen, 
and  drew  around  her  a  circle  of  gifted  poetesses  whose  fame  spread 
with  hers  throughout  Greece. 

Akmus^  an  unsuccessful  lover  of  Sappho,  was  a  polished,  passionate 
lyrist.  His  political  and  war  poems  gained  him  high  repute,  but, 
like  Archilochus,  he  dropped  his  shield  in  battle  and  ran  from  danger. 
His  convivial  songs  were  favorites  with  the  classic  topers.  One  of 
his  best  poems  is  the  familiar  one,  beginning, 

*'  What  constitutes  a  state  ? 
Not  high-raised  battlement  or  labored  mound, 
Thick  wall  or  moated  gate." 

Amwreon  was  a  "society  poet."  Himself  pleasure-loving  and 
dissipated,  his  odes  were  devoted  to  "  the  muse,  good  humor,  love, 
and  wine."  He  lived  to  be  eighty-five  years  old,  and  his  memory  was 
perpetuated  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  by  a  statue  of  a  drunken 
old  man. 

Simonides  was  remarkable  for  his  terse  epigrams  and  choral 
hymns.  He  was  the  author  of  the  famous  inscription  upon  the 
pillar  at  Thermopylae  (p.  20),  of  which  Christopher  North  says, 

♦'  'Tis  but  two  lines,  and  all  Greece  for  centuries  had  them  by  heart.  She  forgot 
them,  and  Greece  was  living  Greece  no  more." 

Pinda/r,  the  "  Theban  eagle,"  came  from  a  long  ancestry  of  poets 
and  musicians.  His  fame  began  when  he  was  twenty  years  old,  and 
for  sixty  years  he  was  the  glory  and  delight  of  his  countrymen. 
As  Homer  was  the  poet,  and  Sappho  the  poetess,  so  Pindar  was  the 
lyrist  of  Greece.  Of  all  his  compositions  there  remain  entire  only 
forty-five  Triumphal  Odes  celebrating  victories  gained  at  the  national 
games.  His  bold  and  majestic  style  abounds  in  striking  metaphors, 
abrupt  transitions,  and  complicated  rhythms.     (See  p.  39.) 

The  Drama. — Rise  of  Tragedy  and  Comedy.— In  early  times  the 
wine-god  Dionysos  (Bacchus)  was  worshipped  with  hymns    and 


THE     CIVILIZATIOK.  53 

dances  around  an  open  altar,  a  goat  being  the  usual  sacrifice.* 
During  the  Bacchic  festivities,  bands  of  revellers  went  about  with 
their  faces  smeared  with  wine  lees,  shouting  coarse  and  bantering 
songs  to  amuse  the  village-folk.  Out  of  these  rites  and  revels  grew 
tragedy  (goat-song)  and  comedy  (village-song).  The  themes  of  the 
Tragic  Chorus  were  the  crimes,  woes,  and  vengeance  of  the  "  fate- 
driven"  heroes  and  gods,  the  murderous  deeds  being  commonly 
enacted  behind  a  curtain,  or  narrated  by  messengers.  The  great 
Greek  poets  esteemed  fame  above  everything  else,  and  to  write  for 
money  was  considered  a  degradation  of  genius.  The  prizes  for 
which  they  so  eagerly  contended  were  simple  crowns  of  wild  olives. 

^schylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  the  great  tragic  trio  of 
antiquity,  belong  to  the  golden  Age  of  Pericles.  The  first  ex- 
celled in  the  sublime,  the  second  in  the  beautiful,  and  the  third  in 
the  pathetic.t 

j^schylus  (525-456  b.  c.)  belonged  to  a  noble  family  in  Eleusis,  a 
village  near  Athens,  celebrated  for  its  secret  rites  of  Demeter  {p.  72). 
Here,  under  the  shadow  of  the  sacred  mysteries,  a  proud,  earnest 
boy,  he  drank  in  from  childhood  a  love  of  the  awful  and  sublime. 
A  true  soldier-poet,  he  did  not,  like  Archilochus  and  Alcaeus,  vent 
all  his  courage  in  words,  but  won  a  prize  for  his  bravery  at  Marathon, 
and  shared  in  the  glory  of  Salamis.  In  his  old  age  he  was  publicly 
accused  of  sacrilege  for  having  disclosed  on  the  stage  some  details 

*  Grecian  mythology  represented  Bacchus  as  a  merry,  rollicking  god,  whose 
attendants  were  fauns  and  satyrs— beings  half  goat  and  half  man.  The  early  Tragic 
Chorus  dressed  in  goat-skins.  Thespis^  a  strolling  player,  introduced  an  actor  or 
story-teller  between  the  hymns  of  his  satyr-chorus  to  fill  up  the  pauses  with  a  nar- 
rative, ^schylus  added  a  second,  and  Sophocles  a  third  actor  ;  more  than  that  never 
appeared  together  on  the  Athenian  stage.  Women  were  not  allowed  to  act.  A  poet 
contesting  for  the  prize  generally  offered  three  plays  to  be  produced  the  same  day  in 
succession  on  the  stage.  This  was  called  a  trilogy ;  a  farce  or  satyr-drama  often 
followed,  closing  the  series. 

t  "  Oh,  our  ^schylus,  the  thunderous  I 
How  he  drove  the  bolted  breath 
Through  the  cloud,  to  wedge  it  ponderous 
In  the  gnarled  oak  beneath. 

"  Oh,  our  Sophocles,  the  royal. 

Who  was  born  to  monarch's  placd, 
And  who  made  the  whole  world  loyal 
Less  by  kingly  power  than  grace. 
*'  Our  Euripides,  the  human, 

With  his  droppings  of  warm  tears, 
And  his  touches  of  things  common 
Till  they  rose  to  touch  the  spheres." 

—Mrs.  Browning  in  "  Wine  of  Cyprus."** 


54 


GREECE. 


of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  Becoming  piqued  at  the  rising  success 
of  Sophocles,  who  bore  a  prize  away  from  him,  he  retired  to  Syra- 
cuse, where,  at  the  court  of  Hiero,  with  Pindar,  Simonides,  and 
other  literary  friends,  he  passed  his  last  years,  ^schylus  wrote 
over  seventy  tragedies,  of  which  only  seven  are  preserved. 


'  THE  GREAT  TRAGIC  TRIO. 


PrometJieus  Bound  furnishes  a  typical  IDustration  of  this  poet's  style.  According 
to  the  myth,  Prometheus  (whose  name  means  forethought)  had  incun-ed  the  hatred 
of  his  fellow-gods  by  stealthily  bringing  some  sparks  of  fire  from  heaven  to  give  to 
mankind,  whom  he  specially  loved.  For  this  crime  Zeus  (Jupiter)  commanded  him 
to  be  bound  upon  Mount  Caucasus,  where  for  thirty  thousand  years  an  eagle  should 
feed  upon  his  vitals.  The  brutal  taunts  and  scofEs  of  the  two  savage  sherifis, 
*'  Strength"  and  "  Force,"  who  drag  him  to  the  spot ;  the  reluctant  riveting  of  his 
chains  and  bolts  by  the  sympathizing  Vulcan ;  the  graceful  pity  of  the  ocean-nymphs 
who  come  to  condole  with  the  fettered  god  in  his  agony  ;  the  visit  of  the  once-beau- 
tiftil  maiden  lo,  now  changed  by  Juno's  jealousy  into  a  horned  heifer,  and  forced  to 
wander  up  and  down  the  earth,  incegsantly  tormented  by  a  gadfly  ;  the  threats  and 
expostulations  of  Mercury,  who  is  sent  by  Zeus  to  force  from  the  fettered  god  a  secret 
he  is  withholding ;  the  unflinching  defiance  of  Prometheus,  and  the  final  opening  of 
the  dreadful  abyss  into  which,  amid  fearful  thunders,  lightnings,  and  "  gusts  of  all 
fierce  winds,"  the  rock  and  its  sturdy  prisoner  drop  suddenly  and  are  swallowed  up,— 
all  these  are  portrayed  in  this  drama  with  a  fiery  force,  majesty,  and  passion  which 
in  the  whole  range  of  literature  is  scarcely  equalled. 

Fkom  Prometheus  'BoxrsT>.— {Prometheus  to  Mercury.) 
*'  Let  the  locks  of  the  lightning,  all  bristling  and  whitening, 
Flash,  coiling  me  round. 
While  the  ether  goes  surging  'neath  thunder  and  scourging 

Of  wild  winds  unbound  1 
Let  the  blast  of  the  firmament  whirl  from  its  place 

The  earth  rooted  below, 
And  the  brine  of  the  ocean,  in  rapid  emotion, 

Be  it  driven  in  the  face 
Of  the  stars  up  in  heaven,  as  they  walk  to  and  fro  1 


tHE     CiVlLlZATiOii'.  65 

Let  him  hurl  me  anon,  into  Tartarus — on— 

To  the  blackest  degree. 
With  Necessity's  vortices  strangling  me  down ; 
But  he  cannot  join  death  to  a  fate  meant  for  me  !  " 

—Mrs.  £rowning''8  Translation. 

Sophocles  (495-405  b.  c),  the  sweetness  and  purity  of  whose  style 
gained  for  him  the  title  of  the  Attic  Bee,  was  only  twenty-seven 
years  old  when  he  won  the  prize  away  from  ^schylus,  then  ap- 
proaching sixty.  Athens  was  just  entering  upon  the  most  brilliant 
period  in  her  career,  the  magnificent  interval  of  intellectual  glory 
following  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  Salamis,  and  Plataea,  and  continu- 
ing through  the  Peloponnesian  war.  ^schylus  had  been  a  gallant 
soldier ;  Sophocles  was  a  true  gentleman.  Less  grand  and  impetu- 
ous, more  graceful  and  artistic  than  his  great  competitor,  he  came 
like  sunshine  after  storm.  The  tragedies  with  which  the  elder 
poet  had  thrilled  the  Athenian  heart  were  tinctured  with  the  un- 
earthly mysteries  of  his  Eleusinian  home ;  the  polished  creations  of 
Sophocles  reflected  the  gentle  charm  of  his  own  native  Colo'nus. 
Sophocles  improved  the  style  of  the  tragic  chorus,  and  attired  his 
actors  in  "  splendid  robes,  jewelled  chaplets,  and  embroidered  gir- 
dles." Of  him,  as  of  iEschylus,  we  have  only  seven  tragedies 
remaining,  though  he  is  said  to  have  composed  over  one  hundred. 

CEdipus  the  King  was  selected  by  Aristotle  as  the  master-piece  of  tragedy. 
(Edipus,  so  runs  the  plot,  was  son  of  Laius,  king  of  Thebes.  An  oracle  having  fore- 
told that  he  should  "  slay  his  father  and  marry  his  mother,"  Jocasta,  the  queen,  to 
avert  this  fate,  exposes  him  to  die  in  the  forest.  Here  a  shepherd  finds  and  rescues 
him.  He  grows  up  to  manhood,  unconscious  of  his  story,  and  journeys  to  Thebes. 
On  the  way  he  meets  an  old  man,  whose  chariot  jostles  against  him.  A  quarrel  en- 
sues, and  he  slays  the  gray-haired  stranger.  Arrived  at  Thebes,  he  finds  the  whole 
city  in  commotion.  A  frightful  monster,  called  the  Sphinx,  has  propounded  a  riddle 
which  no  one  can  solve,  and  every  failure  costs  a  life.  So  terrible  is  the  crisis  that 
the  hand  of  the  widowed  queen  is  offered  to  any  one  who  will  unravel  the  enigma 
and  save  the  state.  CEdipus  is  the  successful  man,  and  he  weds  Jocasta,  his  mother. 
After  many  years  come  fearful  plagues  and  pestilences.  The  oracle,  again  consulted, 
declares  they  shall  continue  until  the  murderer  of  Laius  is  found  and  punished. 
The  unconscious  CEdipus  actively  pushes  the  search,  and  at  last  is  confronted  with 
the  revelation  of  his  own  unhappy  destiny.  Jocasta  hangs  herself  in  horror,  and 
(Edipus,  tearing  a  golden  buckle  from  her  dress,  thrusts  its  sharp  point  into  both 
his  eyes  and  goes  out  to  roam  the  earth. 

In  (Edipus  at  Colonus  the  subject  is  continued.  Here  the  blind  old  man,  attended 
by  his  faithful  daughter,  Antig'one,  has  wandered  to  Colonus,  where  he  unwittingly 
sits  down  to  rest  within  the  precincts  of  a  grove  sacred  to  the  Gentle  Goddesses. 
The  indignant  citizens  come  out,  and,  discovering  who  the  old  man  is,  command  him 
to  depart  from  their  borders.  Meantime,  war  is  raging  in  Thebes  between  his  two 
sons,  and  an  oracle  has  declared  that  only  his  body  will  decide  success.  Every  means 
is  used  to  obtain  it,  but  the  gods  have  willed  that  his  sons  shall  slay  each  other. 
CEdipus,  always  "  driven  by  fate,"  follows  the  Queen  of  Night,  upon  whose  borders 
he  has  trespassed.  The  last  moment  comes ;  a  sound  of  subterranean  thunder  is 
heard ;  his  daughters,  wailing  and  terrified,  cling  to  him  in  wild  embrace ;  a  mys- 
terious voice  calls  from  beneath,  "  (Edipus !  King  (Edipus  1  come  hither ;  thou  art 
wanted  I "    The  earth  opens,  and  the  old  man  disappears  forever. 


56  GREECE, 


The  following  is  from  a  famous  chorus  *  in  OEdipus  at  Colonus,  describing  the 
beauties  of  the  surrounding  scenery : 

"  Here  ever  and  aye,  through  the  greenest  vale, 

Gush  the  wailing  notes  of  the  nightingale, 

From  her  home  where  the  dark-hued  ivy  weaves 

With  the  grove  of  the  god  a  night  of  leaves  ; 

And  the  vines  blossom  out  from  the  lonely  glade,   • 

And  the  suns  of  the  summer  are  dim  in  the  shade, 

And  the  storms  of  the  winter  have  never  a  breeze 

That  can  shiver  a  leaf  from  the  charmed  trees. 
******* 

And  wandering  there  forever,  the  fountains  are  at  play, 

And  Cephissus  feeds  his  river  from  their  sweet  urns,  day  by  day ; 

The  river  knows  no  dearth ; 

Ado\vn  the  vale  the  lapsing  waters  glide, 

And  the  pure  rain  of  that  pellucid  tide 

Calls  the  rife  beauty  from  the  heart  of  earth." 

—Bulwer's  Translation. 
Euripides  (480-406  B.C.),  the  Scenic  Philosopher,  was  born  in 
Salamis  on  the  day  of  the  great  sea-fight.f  Twenty-five  years  after- 
ward—the year  after  ^schylus  died — his  first  trilogy  was  put 
upon  the  stage.  Athens  had  changed  in  the  half-century  since  the 
poet  of  Eleusis  came  before  the  public.  A  new  element  was  steadily 
gaining  ground.  Doubts,  reasonings,  and  disbeliefs  in  the  marvellous 
stories  told  of  the  gods  were  creeping  into  society.  Schools  of 
rhetoric  and  philosophy  were  springing  up,  and  already  "  to  use  dis- 
course of  reason  "  was  accounted  more  important  than  to  recite  the 
Biad  and  Odyssey  entire.  To  ^schylus  and  to  most  of  his  hearers 
the  Fates  and  the  Furies  had  been  dread  realities,  and  the  gods  upon 
Olympus  as  undoubted  personages  as  Miltiades  or  Themistocles ; 
Sophocles,  too,  who  avoided  everything  that  might  disturb  the 
serenity  of  his  art,  accepted  the  Homeric  deities  as  he  found  them ; 

*  An  interesting  incident  is  connected  with  this  chorus.  Sophocles,  then  an  old 
man,  had  been  accused  by  a  covetous  son  of  being  incapable  of  managing  his  prop- 
erty. The  action  was  brought  into  court,  whither  the  aged  poet  came  and,  as  his 
only  defence,  recited  some  lines  on  Colonus  which  he  had  just  written.  The  jury 
burst  into  applause,  the  case  was  hastily  dismissed,  and  the  white-haired  Sophocles 
returned  to  his  home  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  greater  honor  than  before. 
"  We  can  imagine  Sophocles  in  his  old  age  recounting  the  historic  names  and  scenes 
with  which  he  had  been  so  familiar ;  how  he  had  listened  to  the  thunder  of '  Olympian 
Pericles ' ;  how  he  had  been  startled  by  the  chorus  of  Furies  in  the  play  of  ^schylus ; 
how  he  had  talked  with  the  garrulous  and  open-hearted  Herodotus  ;  how  he  had  fol- 
lowed Anaxagoras,  the  great  Sceptic,  in  the  cool  of  the  day  among  a  throng  of  his 
disciples  ;  how  he  had  walked  with  Phidias  and  supped  with  Aspasia."— CoWiw5. 

t  The  three  great  tragic  poets  of  Athens  wei*e  singularly  connected  together  by 
the  battle  of  Salami^  ^schylus,  in  the  heroic  vigor  of  his  life,  fought  there; 
Euripides,  whose  parents  had  fled  from  Athens  on  the  approach  of  the  Persians,  was 
born  near  the  scene,  probably  on  the  battle-day ;  and  Sophocles,  a  beautiful  boy  of 
fifteen,  danced  to  the  choral  song  of  Simonides,  celebrating  the  victory. 


THE     CIVILIZATIOK.  57 

but  Euripides  belonged  to  the  party  of  "  advanced  thinkers,"  and 
believed  no  more  in  the  gods  of  the  myths  and  legends  than  in  the 
prophets  and  soothsayers  of  his  own  time.  Discarding  the  ideal 
heroes  and  heroines  of  Sophocles,  he  modeled  his  characters  after 
real  men  and  women,  endowing  them  with  human  passions  and 
affections.*    Of  his  eighty  or  ninety  plays,  seventeen  remain. 

Mede'a  is  his  most  celebrated  tragedy.  A  Colchian  princess  skilled  in  sorcery 
becomes  the  wife  of  Jason,  the  hero  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  Being  afterward  thrust 
aside  for  a  new  love,  she  finds  her  revenge  by  sending  the  bride  an  enchanted  robe 
and  crown,  in  which  she  is  no  sooner  clothed  than  they  burst  into  flame  and  con- 
sume her.  To  complete  her  vengeance  Medea  murders  her  two  young  sons— so  deeply 
wronged  by  their  father,  so  tenderly  loved  by  herself— and  then,  after  hovering  over 
the  palace  long  enough  to  mock  and  jeer  at  the  anguish  of  the  frantic  Jason,  she  is 
whirled  away  with  the  dead  bodies  of  her  children  in  a  dragon-borne  car,  the  chariot 
of  her  grandsire,  the  sun. 

Feom  Medea.— (if(?«?ea  ix)  her  sons.) 
"  Why  gaze  you  at  me  with  your  eyes,  my  children  ? 

Why  smile  your  last  sweet  smile?    Ah  me  1  ah  me ! 

What  shall  I  do  ?    My  heart  dissolves  within  me. 

Friends,  when  I  see  the  glad  eyes  of  my  sons  1 

Yet  whence  this  weakness  ?    Do  I  wish  to  reap 

The  scorn  that  springs  from  enemies  unpunished  ? 

Die  they  must ;  this  must  be,  and  since  it  must, 

I,  I  myself  will  slay  them,  I  who  bore  them. 
O  my  sons  1 

Give,  give  your  mother  your  dear  hands  to  kiss. 

O  dearest  hands,  and  mouths  most  dear  to  me, 

And  forms  and  noble  faces  of  my  sons  ! 

O  tender  touch  and  sweet  breath  of  my  boys  1  '* 

—Symonds's  Translation. 
Comedy. — When  AristopTianes  appeared  with  the  first  of  his 
sharp  satires,  Euripides  had  been  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  before 
the  public,  and  the  Peloponnesian  war  was  near  at  hand.  The  new 
poet  whose  genius  was  so  full  of  mockery  and  mirth  was  a  rich, 
aristocratic  Athenian,  the  natural  enemy  of  the  ultra-democratic 
mob-orators  of  his  day,  whom  he  heartily  hated  and  despised.  In 
the  bold  and  brilliant  satires  which  now  electrified  all  Athens, 

*  Aristophanes  ridiculed  his  scenic  art,  denounced  his  theology,  and  accused  him 
of  corrupting  society  by  the  fJdsehood  and  deceit  shown  by  his  characters.  The  line 
in  one  of  his  plays, 

"  Though  the  tongue  swore,  the  heart  remained  unsworn,'' 
caused  his  arrest  for  seeming  to  justify  perjury.  When  the  people  were  violent  in 
censure,  Euripides  would  sometimes  appear  on  the  stage  and  beg  them  to  sit  the 
play  through.  On  one  occasion  when  their  displeasure  was  extreme  he  tartly  ex- 
claimed, "  Good  people,  it  is  my  business  to  teach  you  and  not  to  be  taught  by  you." 
Tradition  relates  that  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs,  set  upon  him  by  two  rival  poets, 
while  he  was  walking  in  the  garden  of  the  Macedonian  king,  at  Pella.  The  Athenians 
were  eager  to  honor  him  after  his  death,  and  erected  a  statue  in  the  theatre  where  he 
bad  been  so  often  hissed  as  well  as  applauded. 


58  GREECE. 

every  prominent  public  man  was  liable  to  see  his  personal  peculiar- 
ities paraded  on  the  stage.*  The  facts  and  follies  of  the  times  were 
pictured  so  vividly  that  when  Dionysius,  the  Tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
wrote  to  Plato  for  information  as  to  affairs  in  Athens,  the  great 
philosopher  sent  for  answer  a  copy  of  The  Clouds. 

Aristophanes  wrote  over  fifty  plays,  of  which  eleven,  in  part  or 
all,  remain. 

Of  these,  The  Frogs  and  the  WomarCs  Festival  were  direct  satires  on  Euripides. 
The  Knights  was  written,  so  the  author  declared,  to  "cut  up  Cleon  the  Tanner  into 
shoe-leather."  t  Tha  Clouds  ridiculed  the  new-school  philosophers ;  %  and  The 
Wasps^  the  Athenian  passion  for  law-courts. 

Fbom  the  Clouds.— (AS^cewe ;    Socrates,  absorbed  in  thought,  swinging  in  a  basket^ 
surrounded  by  his  students.    Enter  Strepsiades,  a  visiter.) 
Str.  Who  hangs  dangling  in  yonder  basket  ? 

Stud.  HIMSELF.    Str.  And  who's  Himself?    Stud.  Why,  Socrates. 
Str.  Ho,  Socrates  1    Sweet,  darling  Socrates ! 
Soc.  Why  callest  thou  me,  poor  creature  of  a  day  ? 
Str.  First  tell  me,  pray,  what  are  you  doing  up  there  f 
Soc.  I  walk  in  air  and  contemplate  the  sun  1 
Str.  Oh,  thaVs  the  way  that  you  despise  the  gods — 

You  get  so  near  them  on  your  perch  there — eh  f 
Soc.  I  never  could  have  found  out  things  divine, 

Had  I  not  hung  my  mind  up  thus,  and  mixed 

My  subtle  intellect  with  its  kindred  air. 

Had  I  regarded  such  things  from  below, 

I  had  learnt  nothing.    For  the  earth  absorbs 

Into  itself  the  moisture  of  the  brain. 

It  is  the  same  with  water-cresses. 
Str.  Dear  me  I    So  water-cresses  grow  by  thinking  1 

The  so-called  Old  Comedy^  in  which  individuals  were  satirized, 
died  with  Aristophanes,  and  to  it  succeeded  the  New  Comedy^  por- 
traying general  types  of  human  nature,  and  dealing  with  domestic 
life  and  manners. 

Menander  (342-291  b.  c),  founder  of  this  new  school,  was  a  warm 

*  Even  the  deities  were  burlesqued,  and  the  devout  Athenians,  who  denounced 
Euripides  for  venturing  to  doubt  the  gods  and  goddesses,  were  wild  in  applause  when 
Aristophanes  dragged  them  out  as  absurd  cowards,  or  blustering  braggarts,  or  as 
"  Baking  peck-loaves  and  ftying  stacks  of  pancakes." 

t  The  masks  of  the  actors  in  Greek  comedy  were  made  to  caricature  the  features 
of  the  persons  represented.  Cleon  was  at  this  lime  so  powerful  that  no  artist  dared 
to  make  a  mask  for  his  character  in  the  play,  nor  could  any  man  be  found  bold 
enough  to  act  the  part.  Aristophanes  therefore  took  it  himself,  smearing  his  face 
with  wine  lees,  which  he  declared  "  well  represented  the  purple  and  bloated  visage  of 
the  demagogue." 

X  It  is  said  that  Socrates,  who  was  burlesqued  in  this  play,  was  present  at  its  per- 
formance, which  he  heartily  enjoyed  ;  and  that  he  even  mounted  on  abench  that  every 
one  might  see  the  admirable  resemblance  between  himself  and  his  counterfeit  upon 
the  stage. 


THE     CIVILIZATION" 


69 


friend  of  Epicuras  (p  65),  whose  philosophy  he  adopted.  He  ad- 
mired, as  heartily  as  Aristophanes  had  disliked,  Euripides,  and  his 
style  was  manifestly  influenced  by  th^t  of  the  tragic  poet.  He  ex- 
celled in  delineation  of  character,  and  made  his  dramatic  personages 
so  real  that  a  century  afterward  it  was  written  of  him, 

"  O  Life,  and  O  Menander  I    Speak  and  say 
Which  copied  which  ?    Or  Nature,  or  the  play  f  " 

Of  his  works  only  snatches  remain,  many  of  which  were  household  proverbs 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Such  were:  "  He  is  well  cleansed  that  hath  his  con- 
science clean,"  "The  workman  is  greater  than  his  work,"  and  the  memorable  one. 
quoted  by  St.  Paul,  "  Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners." 


THE  GREAT   HISTORIANS  OF  GREECE. 


History. — Here  also  we  have  an  illustrious  trio:  Herodotus 
(484-420),  Thucydides  (471-400),  and  Xenophon  (about  431-355). 
Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus  we  recall  as  an  old  friend  met  in  Egyptian 
history.  Having  rank,  wealth,  and  a  passion  for  travel,  he  roamed 
over  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Babylon,  Judea,  and  Persia,  studying  their 
history,  geography,  and  national  customs.  In  Athens,  where  he 
spent  several  years,  he  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Sophocles.  His 
history  was  divided  into  nine  books,  named  after  the  nine  muses.* 
The  principal  subject  is  the  Greek  and  Persian  War;  but,  by  way  of 
episode,  sketches  of  various  nations  are  introduced.  His  style  is 
artless,  graphic,  flowing,  rich  in  description,  and  interspersed  with 

*  Leonidas  of  Tarentnm,  a  favorite  writer  of  epigrams,  who  lived  two  hundred 
years  after  Herodotus,  thus  accounted  for  their  names  : 

"  The  muses  nine  came  one  day  to  Herodotus  and  dined, 
And  in  return,  their  host  to  pay,  left  each  a  book  behind." 


60  GREECE. 

dialogue.  He  has  been  described  as  having  "  the  head  of  a  sage, 
the  heart  of  a  mother,  and  the  simplicity  of  a  child." 

Tliucydides  is  said  to  have  been  won  to  his  vocation  by  hearing 
the  history  of  Herodotus  read  at  Olympia,  which  charmed  him  to 
tears.  Rich,  noble,  and  educated,  he  was  in  the  prime  of  his  man- 
hood when,  at  the  opening  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  he  received 
command  of  a  squadron.  Having  failed  to  arrive  with  his  ships  in 
time  to  save  a  certain  town  from  surrender,  Cleon  caused  his  dis- 
grace, and  he  went  into  exile  to  escape  a  death  penalty.  During  the 
next  twenty  years  he  prepared  his  History  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
His  style  is  terse,  noble,  and  spirited ;  as  a  historian  he  is  accurate 
and  impartial.  "  His  book,"  says  Macaulay,  "  is  that  of  a  man  and 
a  statesman,  and  in  this  respect  presents  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the 
delightful  childishness  of  Herodotus." 

Xenophon's  historical  fame  rests  mostly  on  his  Anabasis*  which 
relates  the  expedition  of  Cyrus  and  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand. 
He  was  one  of  the  generals  who  conducted  this  memorable  retreat, 
in  which  he  displayed  great  firmness,  courage,  and  military  skill.  A 
few  years  later  the  Athenians  formed  their  alliance  with  Persia,  and 
Xenophon,  who  still  held  command  under  his  friend  and  patron,  the 
Spartan  king  Agesilaus,  was  brought  into  the  position  of  an  enemy 
to  his  state.  A  decree  of  banishment  having  been  passed  against 
him  in  Athens,  his  Spartan  friends  furnished  him  with  a  beautiful 
country  residence  about  two  miles  from  Olympia,  where  he  spent 
the  best  years  of  his  long  life.  Next  to  the  Anabasis  ranks  his 
MemoraUlia  (memoirs)  of  Socrates,!  his  friend  and  teacher. 
Xenophon  was  said  by  the  ancients  to  be  "  the  first  man  that 
ever  took  notes  of  conversation."  The  Memorabilia  is  a  collec- 
tion of  these,  in  which  the  character  and  doctrines  of  Socrates 
are  discussed.  Xenophon  was  the  author  of  fifteen  works,  all  of 
which  are  extant.  His  style,  simple,  clear,  racy,  refined,  and  noted 
for  colloquial  vigor,  is  considered  the  model  of  classical  Greek 
prose. 

Oratory.— Eloquence  was  studied  in  Greece  as  an  art.    Pericles, 

*  This  word  means  the  "  march  up,"  viz.,  from  the  sea  to  Babylon.  A  more  ap- 
propriate name  would  be  Katabasis  (march  down),  as  most  of  the  book  is  occupied 
with  the  details  of  the  return  journey. 

t  There  is  a  story  that  Xenophon,  when  a  boy,  once  met  Socrates  in  a  lane. 
The  philosopher,  barring  the  way  with  his  cane,  demanded,  "Where  is  food 
sold?"  Xenophon  having  replied,  Socrates  asked,  "And  where  are  men  made 
good  and  noble?"  The  lad  hesitated,  whereupon  Socrates  answered  himself  by 
saying,  "  Follow  me  and  learn."  Xenophon  obeyed,  and  was  henceforth  his  devoted 
disciple. 


THE     CIVILIZATION, 


61 


though  he  spoke  only  upon  great  occasions,  was  famed  for  his  powers 
of  address,  but 

Demosthenes  (385-323  B.C.) 
was  the  unrivaled  orator  of 
Greece,  if  not  of  the  world. 
An  awkward,  sickly,  stam- 
mering boy,  by  his  deter- 
mined energy  and  persever- 
ance he  "  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  all  the  mighty 
masters  of  speech  —  unap- 
proachable forever." — (Lord 
Brougham.)  His  first  address 
before  the  public  assembly 
was  hissed  and  derided ;  but 
he  had  resolved  to  be- 
come an  orator,  and  nothing 
daunted  him.  He  employed 
every  means  to  overcome  his 

natural  defects,*  and  at  last  was  rewarded  by  the  palm  of  eloquence. 
In  his  style  there  was  no  efibrt  at  display,  but  every  sentence  was 
made  subservient  to  the  great  end  of  his  argument.  "  We  never 
think  of  his  words,"  said  Fenelon ;  "  we  think  only  of  the  things  he 
says."     His  oration  Upon  the  Crown  f  is  his  master-piece. 

Philosophy  and  Science. — The  Seven  Sages.  They  lived 
about  600  B.  c.X  They  were  celebrated  for  their  moral,  social,  and 
political  wisdom.     One  of  them,  named 


DEMOSTHENES. 


*  That  he  might  study  without  hindrance  he  shut  himself  up  for  months  in  a 
room  underground,  and,  it  is  said,  copied  the  history  of  Tbucydides  eight  times  that 
he  might  be  infused  with  its  concentrated  thought  and  energy.  Out  on  the  seashore, 
with  his  mouth  filled  with  pebbles,  he  exercised  his  voice  until  it  sounded  full  and 
clear  above  the  tumult  of  the  waves  ;  while  in  the  privacy  of  his  own  room,  before 
a  full-length  mirror,  he  disciplined  his  awkward  gestures  till  he  had  schooled  them 
into  grace  and  aptness. 

+  It  had  been  proposed  that  his  public  services  should  be  rewarded  by  a  golden 
crown— the  custom  being  for  an  orator  to  wear  a  crown  in  token  of  his  inviolability 
while  speaking,  .^schines,  a  fellow -orator,  whom  he  had  accused  of  favoring  Philip, 
opposed  the  measure.  The  discussion  lasted  six  years.  When  the  two  finally  appeared 
before  a  vast  and  excited  assembly  for  the  closing  argument,  the  impetuous  eloquence 
of  Demosthenes  swept  everything  before  it.  In  after  years,  though  his  whole  life  had 
proved  him  a  zealous  patriot,  he  was  charged  with  having  received  bribes  from 
Macedon.    Exiled,  and  under  sentence  of  death,  he  poisoned  himself. 

X  About  this  time  lived  ^sop,  who,  though  born  a  slave,  gained  his  freedom  and 
the  friendship  of  kings  and  wise  men  by  his  peculiar  wit.  His  fables,  long  preserved 
by  oral  tradition,  were  the  delight  of  the  Atheniansj  who  read  in  them  many  a  pithy 


0/5  GREECE. 

ThaUs^  who  had  studied  in  Egypt,  founded  a  school  of  thinkers. 
He  taught  that  all  things  were  generated  from  water,  into  which  they 
would  all  be  ultimately  resolved.  During  the  next  two  centuries 
many  philosophers  arose,  among  whom  the  following  are  especially 
noted : 

Anaximander,  the  scientist,  invented  a  sun-dial — an  instrument 
which  had  long  been  used  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia — and  wrote  a 
geographical  treatise,  enriched  with  the  first  known  map. 

Anaxagoras  discovered  the  cause  of  eclipses,  and  the  difference 
between  the  planets  and  fixed  stars.  He  did  not,  like  his  predecessors, 
regard  fire,  air,  or  water  as  the  origin  of  all  things,  but  believed  in  a 
Supreme  Intellect.  He  was  accused  of  atheism,*  tried,  and  condemned 
to  death,  but  his  friend  Pericles  succeeded  in  changing  the  sentence 
to  exile.     Contemporary  with  him  was 

Hip'pocrates^  the  father  of  physicians,  who  came  from  a  family  of 
priests  devoted  to  ^sculapius,  the  god  of  medicine.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  physiology,  and  referred  diseases  to  natural  causes 
and  not,  as  was  the  popular  belief,  to  the  displeasure  of  the  gods. 

Pythagoras,  the  greatest  of  early  philosophers,  was  the  first  to 
assert  the  movement  of  the  earth  in  the  heavens;  he  also  made  some 
important  discoveries  in  geology  and  mathematics.  At  his  school 
in  Crotona,  Italy,  his  disciples  were  initiated  with  secret  rites  ;  one 
of  the  tests  of  fitness  being  the  power  to  keep  silence  under  every 
circumstance.  He  based  all  creation  upon  the  numerical  rules  of 
harmony,  and  asserted  that  the  heavenly  spheres  roll  in  musical 
rhythm.  Teaching  the  Egyptian  doctrine  of  transmigration,  he 
professed  to  remember  what  had  happened  to  himself  in  a  previous 
existence  when  he  was  a  Trojan  hero.  His  followers  reverenced  him 
as  half-divine,  and  their  unquestioning  faith  passed  into  the  proverb, 
Ipse  dixit  (He  has  said  it). 

Socrates  (470-399  b.  c.).— During  the  entire  thirty  years  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War  a  grotesque-featured,  ungainly,  shabbily-dressed, 
bare-footed  man  might  have  been  seen  wandering  about  the  streets 
of  Athens,  in  all  weathers  and  at  all  hours,  in  the  crowded  market- 
place, among  the  workshops,  wherever  men  were  gathered,  inces- 
santly asking  and  answering  questions.    This  man  was  Socrates,  a 

public  lesson.  His  statue,  the  work  of  Lysippus  (p.  71),  was  placed  opposite  to  those 
of  the  Seven  Sages  in  Athens,  Socrates  greatly  admired  ^sop's  fables,  and  during 
his  last  days  in  prison  amused  himself  by  versifying  tliera. 

*  The  Gkeeks  were  especially  angry  because  Anaxagoras  taught  that  the  sun  is 
not  a  god.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  they  condemn(>d  to  death  as  uu  atheist  the  flret 
jnan  among  them  who  advanced  the  idea  of  One  Supreme  Deity. 


THE     CIVILIZATION.  63 

self-taught  philosopher,  who  believed  that  he  had  a  special  mission 
from  the  gods,  and  was  attended  by  a  ''  divine  voice  "  which  coun- 
seled and  directed  him.  The  questions  he  discussed  pertained  to 
life  and  morality,  and  were  especially  pointed  against  the  Sophists, 
who  were  the  skeptics  and  quibblers  of  the  day.  His  earnest  elo- 
quence attracted  all  classes,*  and  among  his  friends  were  Alcibiades, 
Euripides,  and  Aristophanes.  A  man  who,  by  his  irony  and  argu- 
ment, was  continually  "driving  men  to  their  wits' end,"  naturally 
made  enemies.  One  morning  there  appeared  in  the  portico  where 
such  notices  were  usually  displayed  the  following  indictment: 
"  Socrates  is  guilty  of  crime ;  fii-st,  for  not  worshipping  the  gods 
whom  the  city  worships,  but  introducing  new  divinities  of  his  own ; 
secondly,  for  corrupting  the  youth.  The  penalty  due  is  death." 
Having  been  tried  and  convicted,  he  was  sentenced  to  drink  a  cup 
of  the  poison-hemlock,  which  he  took  in  his  prison  chamber,  sur- 
rounded by  friends  with  whom  he  cheerfully  conversed  till  the  last. 
Socrates  taught  the  unity  of  God,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the 
beauty  and  necessity  of  virtue,  and  the  moral  responsibility  of  man. 
He  was  a  devout  believer  in  oracles,  which  he  frequently  consulted. 
He  left  no  writings,  but  his  philosophy  has  been  preserved  by  his 
faithful  followers,  Xenophon  and  Plato. 

The  Four  Great  Schools  of  Philosophy  (4th  century  b. c). — 
The  Academic  school  was  founded  by  that  devoted  disciple 
of  Socrates,  Plato  (439-347),  who  delivered  his  lectures  in  the 
Academic  Gardens.    Plato  t  is  perhaps  best  known  from  his  argu- 

*  "  Amidst  the  gay  life,  the  beautiful  forms,  the  brilliant  colors  of  an  Athenian 
multitude  and  an  Athenian  street,  the  repulsive  features,  the  unwieldy  figure,  the 
naked  feet,  the  rough  threadbare  attire  of  the  philosopher,  must  have  excited  every 
sentiment  of  astonishment  and  ridicule  which  strong  contrast  can  produce.  It  was 
(so  his  disciples  described  it)  as  if  one  of  the  marble  satyrs,  which  sat  in  grotesque 
attitudes  with  pipe  or  flute  in  the  sculptors'  shops  at  Athens,  had  left  his  seat  of 
stone,  and  walked  into  the  plane-tree  avenue,  or  the  gymnastic  colonnade.  Gradually 
the  crowd  gathered  round  him.  At  first  he  spoke  of  the  tanners,  and  the  smiths,  and 
the  drovers,  who  were  plying  their  trades  about  him  ;  and  they  shouted  with  laughter 
as  he  poured  forth  his  homely  jokes.  But  soon  the  magic  charm  of  his  voice  made 
itself  felt.  The  peculiar  sweetness  of  its  tone  had  an  effect  which  even  the  thunder 
of  Pericles  failed  to  produce.  The  laughter  ceased— the  crowd  thickened— the  gay 
youth,  whom  nothing  else  could  tame,  stood  transfixed  and  awe-struck  in  his  pres- 
ence—there was  a  solemn  thrill  in  his  words,  such  as  his  hearers  could  compare  to 
nothing  but  the  mysterious  sensation  produced  by  the  clash  of  drum  and  cymbal  in 
the  worship  of  the  great  mother  of  the  gods— the  head  swam— the  heart  leaped  at  the 
sound— tears  rushed  from  their  eyes,  and  they  felt  that,  unless  they  tore  themselves 
away  from  that  fascinated  circle,  they  should  sit  down  at  his  feet  and  grow  old  in 
listening  to  the  marvelous  music  of  this  second  Marsyas." 

t  The  Greeks  had  no  family  or  clan  names,  a  single  appellation  serving  for  an 
individual.    To  save  confusion  the  father's  name  was  frecjuently  added.    Attic  wit 


64  GREECE. 

ments  in  regard  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  He  believed  in  one 
eternal  God,  without  whose  aid  no  man  can  attain  wisdom  or  vir- 
tue, and  in  a  previous  as  well  as  a  future  existence.  All  earthly 
knowledge,  he  averred,  is  but  the  recollection  of  ideas  gained  by  the 
soul  in  its  former  disembodied  state,  and  as  the  body  is  only  a  hin- 
drance to  perfect  communion  with  the  "  eternal  essences,"  it  follows 
that  death  is  to  be  desired  rather  than  feared.  His  works  are  written 
in  dialogue,  Socrates  being  represented  as  the  principal  speaker. 
The  abstruse  topics  of  which  he  treats  are  enlivened  by  wit,  fancy, 
humor,  and  picturesque  illustration.  His  style  was  considered  so 
perfect  that  an  ancient  writer  exclaimed,  "  If  Jupiter  had  spoken 
Greek,  he  would  have  spoken  it  like  Plato."  Tlie  fashionables  of 
Athens  thronged  to  the  Academic  Gardens  to  listen  to  "  the  sweet 
speech  of  the  master,  melodious  as  the  song  of  the  cicadas  in  the 
trees  above  his  head."  Even  the  Athenian  women— shut  out  by 
custom  from  the  intellectual  groves — shared  in  the  universal  eager- 
ness, and,  disguised  in  male  attire,  stole  in  to  hear  the  famous 
Plato. 

3.  The  Peripatetic  school  was  founded  by  Aristotle  (384-322), 
who  delivered  his  lectures  while  walking  up  and  down  the  shady 
porches  of  the  Lyceum,  surrounded  by  his  pupils  (lience  called 
Peripatetics,  walkers).  An  enthusiastic  student  under  Plato,  he 
remained  at  the  academy  until  his  master's  death.  A  few  years 
afterward  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  Philip  of  Macedon  to  become 
instructor  to  the  young  Alexander.  Returning  to  Athens  in  335  B.C. 
he  brought  the  magnificent  scientific  collections  given  him  by  his 
royal  patron,  and  opened  his  school  in  the  Lyceum  Gymnasium. 
Suspected  of  partisanship  with  Macedon  and  accused  of  impiety, 
to  avoid  the  fate  of  Socrates  he  fled  to  Euboea,  where  he  died. 
Aristotle,  more  than  any  other  philosopher,  originated  ideas  whose 
influence  is  still  felt.  He  was  the  father  of  zoology  and  of  logic, 
the  principles  which  he  laid  down  in  the  latter  study  having  never 
been  superseded.  His  books  include  works  on  metaphysics,  psychol- 
ogy, ethics,  poetics,  rhetoric,  and  various  other  subjects.  He  taught 
that  all  reasoning  should  be  based  upon  observation  of  facts.  His 
style  is  intricate  and  abstruse.     He  differed  much  from  Plato,  and 

supplied  abundant  nicknames,  suggested  by  some  personal  peculiarities  or  cir- 
cumstance. Thus  this  philosopher,  whose  real  name  was  Aristoclcs,  was  called 
Plato  because  of  his  broad  brow.  He  was  descended  on  his  father's  side  from 
Codrus,  the  last  hero-king  of  Attica,  and  on  his  mother's  from  Solon ;  but  his  ad- 
mirers, not  content  with  even  this  distinguished  lineage,  made  him  a  son  of  the  god 
Apollo,  and  told  how  in  his  infancy  the  bees  had  settled  on  his  lips  as  a  prophecy  of 
the  honejred  words  which  were  to  fall  from  them. 


THE     CIVILIZATION.  65 

though  he  recognized  an  infinite,  immaterial  God,  doubted  the  exist- 
ence of  a  future  life. 

3.  The  Epicubeans  were  the  followers  of  Epicurus  (340-270  b.  c), 
who  taught  that  the  chief  end  of  life  is  enjoyment.  Himself  a  man 
of  the  purest  morals,  he  recommended  virtue  for  the  sake  of  its 
happy  results,  but  his  doctrines  were  so  perverted  by  his  followers 
that  the  word  "  Epicurean  "  has  become  a  synonym  for  loose  and 
luxurious  living. — The  Cynics  (Jcunikos,  dog-like)  went  to  the  other 
extreme,  and,  despising  pleasure,  gloried  in  pain  and  privation. 
They  scofied  at  the  courtesies  of  society,  and  disregarded  the  ties  of 
family  or  country.  The  sect  was  founded  by  Antisthenes,  a  disciple 
of  Socrates,  but  its  principal  representative  was  Diogenes,  who,  it  is 
said,  ate  and  slept  in  a  tub  which  he  carried  about  on  his  head.  He 
was  noted  for  his  caustic  wit,  which  he  indulged  without  reference 
to  persons,*  and  for  his  rude  manners,  the  outgrowth  of  his  creed. 

4.  The  Stoics  were  headed  by  Zeno  (355-260  b.  c),  and  took  their 
name  from  the  painted  portico  (stoa)  under  which  he  gathered  his 
pupils.  Pain  and  pleasure  were  equally  despised  by  them,  and  in- 
difference to  all  external  conditions  was  considered  the  highest  type 
of  virtue.  For  his  example  of  integrity,  Zeno  was  decreed  a  golden 
chaplet  and  a  public  tomb  in  the  Ceramicus. 

Later  Greek  Writers. — Plutarch  (50-120  a.d.)  was  the  great- 
est of  ancient  biographers.  His  Parallel  Lives  of  Oreelcs  and  Romans 
still  delights  hosts  of  readei-s  by  its  admirable  portraiture  of  the 
most  celebrated  men  of  antiquity.  Ludan  (120-200  a.d.)  wrote 
witty  dialogues,  in  which  he  ridiculed  the  absurdities  of  Grecian 
mythology  and  the  follies  of  false  philosophers.  His  Sale  of  the 
Philosophers  humorously  pictures  the  founders  of  the  different  schools 
as  being  j)ut  up  at  auction  by  Mercury. 

Libraries  and  Writing  Materials. — Few  collections  of  books 
were  made  before  the  Peloponnesian  War,  but  in  later  times  it  became 
fashionable  to  have  private  libraries,t  and  after  the  days  of  the  tragic 

*  It  is  said  that  Alexander  the  Great  once  visited  the  surly  philosopher,  whom  he 
found  seated  in  his  tub,  basking  in  the  sun.  "I  am  Alexander,"  said  the  monarch, 
astonished  at  the  indifference  with  which  he  was  received.  "  And  I  am  Diogenes," 
returned  the  cynic.  "  Have  you  no  favor  to  ask  of  me  ?  "  inquired  the  king.  "  Yes," 
growled  Diogenes,  "  to  get  out  of  my  sunlight.''''  This  story,  though  perhaps  apocry- 
phal, illustrates  the  character  of  the  "  snarling  philosopher."  He  was  vain  of  his 
disregard  for  the  decencies  of  life.  At  a  sumptuous  banquet  given  by  Plato  he  en- 
tered uninvited,  and,  rubbing  his  soiled  feet  on  the  rich  carpets,  cried  out,  "Thus  I 
trample  on  your  pride,  O  Plato  ! "  The  polite  host,  who  knew  his  visitor's  weakness, 
aptly  retorted,  "  But  with  still  greater  pride,  O  Diogenes !" 

t  Aristotle  had  an  immense  library,  which  was  sold  after  his  death.     Large 


66 


QEEECB, 


poets  Athens  not  only  abounded  in  book-stalls,  but  a  place  in  the 
Agora  was  formally  assigned  to  book -auctioneering.  The  manu- 
script copies  were  rapidly  multiplied  by  means  of  slave  labor, 
and  became  a  regular  article  of  export  to  the  colonies.  The 
Egyptian  papyrus  and,  afterward,  the  fine  but  expensive  parchment 
were  used  in  copying  books ;  the  papyrus  being  written  on  only  one 
side,  the  parchment  on  both  sides.* 

The  reed  pen  was  used  as  in  Egypt, 
and  double  inkstands  for  black  and  red 
ink  were  invented,  having  a  ring  by 
which  to  fasten  them  to  the  girdle  of 
the  writer.  Waxed  tablets  were  em- 
ployed for  letters,  note-books,  and 
other  requirements  of  daily  life.  These 
were  written  upon  with  a  metal  or 
ivory  pencil  (stylus),  pointed  at  one 
end  and  broadly  flattened  at  the  other, 
so  that  in  case  of  mistake  the  writing 
could  be  smoothed  out  and  the  tablet 
made  as  good  as  new.  A  large  bur- 
nisher was  sometimes  used  for  the 
latter  purpose.  Several  tablets,  joined 
together,  formed  a  book. 

Education. — A  Greek  father  held  the  lives  of  his  young  children 
at  his  will,  and  the  casting  out  of  infants  to  the  chances  of  fate  was 
authorized  by  law  throughout  Greece,  except  at  Thebes.  Girls  were 
especially  subject  to  this  unnatural  treatment.  If  a  child  was  rescued, 
it  became  the  property  of  its  finder. 

The  Athenian  boy,  when  seven  years  old,  was  sent  to  school — the 
school-hours  being  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  Until  sixteen  years  of 
age  he  was  always  attended  in  his  walks  by  a  pedagogtie — usually 


A  GREEK  TABLET. 


libraries  have  been  found  in  the  remains  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  and  some 
of  the  volumes,  although  nearly  reduced  to  coal,  have  by  great  care  been  unrolled 
and  published. 

♦  The  width  of  the  manuscript  (varying  from  six  to  fourteen  Inches)  formed  the 
length  of  the  page,  the  size  of  the  roll  depending  upon  the  number  of  pages  in  a 
book.  When  finished  the  roll  was  coiled  around  a  stick,  and  a  ticket  containing  the 
title  was  appended  to  it  Documents  were  sealed  by  tying  a  string  around  them  and 
affixing  to  the  knot  a  bit  of  clay  or  wax,  which  was  afterward  stamped  with  a  seal. 
In  libraries  the  books  were  arranged  on  shelves  with  the  ends  outward,  or  in  pigeon- 
holes ;  or  several  scrolls  were  put  together  in  a  cylindrical  box  with  a  cover.  The 
reader  unrolled  the  scroll  as  he  advanced,  rolling  up  the  completed  pages  with  his 
Other  hand. 


THE     CIVILIZATION. 


67 


some  trusty  and  intelligent  slave,  too  old  for  hard  work — who,  how- 
ever, never  entered  the  study  room,  no  visitors,  except  near  relatives 
of  the  master,  being  allowed  therein  on  penalty  of  death.  The  boy 
was  first  taught  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  writing.  His  chief  books 
were  Hesiod  and  Homer,  which  he  committed  to  memory.  The 
moral  lessons  they  contained  were  caiefully  enjoined,  for,  says 
Plato,  "  Greek  parents  are  more  careful  about  the  manner  and  morals 
of  the  youth  than  about  his  letters  and  music."  Discipline  was 
enforced  with  the  rod.  All  the  great  lyric  poems 
were  set  to  music,  which  was  universally  taught, 
the  lyre  and  other  stringed  instruments  having 
most  favor.  "Here  again,"  says  Plato,  "  the  teach- 
ers look  carefully  to  virtuous  habits ;  and  rhythms 
and  harmonies  are  made  familiar  to  the  souls  of 
the  young  that  they  may  become  more  gentle,  and 
better  men  in  speech  and  action."  Robust  health 
and  a  symmetrical  muscular  development  were 
considered  so  important  that  the  young  Athenian 
between  sixteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  gymnastic  exercises.  This  was 
a  period  of  probation,  and  though  the  j^edagogue 
was  dismissed,  the  youth's  behavior  was  carefully 
noted  by  his  elders.  At  eighteen  he  was  solemnly 
enrolled  in  the  list  of  citizens.  Two  years  were 
now  given  to  public  service,  after  which  he  was 
free  to  follow  his  own  inclinations.  If  he  were 
scholarly-disposed,  and  had  money,  and  leisure,* 
he  might  spend  his  whole  life  in  learning. 

The  little  an  Athenian  girl  was  required  to  know  was  learned 
from  her  mother  and  nurses  at  home. 

^The  Spartan  lad  of  seven  years  was  placed  under  the  control  of 
the  state.  Hencefprth  he  ate  his  coarse  hard  bread  and  black  broth 
at  the  public  table,!  and  slept  in  the  public  dormitory.     Here  he 


A   GRECIAN   YOUTH. 


*  Our  word  school  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  leisure.  The  education  of 
men  was  obtained,  not  so  much  from  books  as  from  the  philosophical  lectures,  the 
public  assembly,  the  theatre,  and  the  law  courts,  where  the  most  of  their  unoccupied 
time  was  spent. 

t  The  principal  dish  at  the  mess-table  was  a  black  broth,  made  from  a  traditional 
recipe.  Wine  mixed  with  water  was  drunk,  but  toasts  were  never  given,  for  the 
Spartans  thought  it  a  sin  to  use  two  words  when  one  would  do.  Intoxication  and 
the  symposium  (p.  85)  were  forbidden  by  law.  Fat  men  were  regarded  with  sus- 
picion. Small  boys' sat  on  low  stools  near  their  fathers  at  meals,  and  were  given  half 
rations,  which  they  ate  in  silence. 


Oo  GREECE. 

was  taught  to  disdain  all  home-affections  as  a  weakness,  and  to 
think  of  himself  as  belonging  only  to  Sparta.  All  the  Persian 
devices  for  making  hardy  men  were  improved  upon.  He  was 
brought  up  to  despise,  not  only  softness  and  luxury,  but  hunger, 
thirst,  torture,  and  death.  Always  kept  on  small  rations  of  food, 
he  was  sometimes  allowed  only  what  he  could  steal.  If  he  escaped 
detection,  his  adroitness  was  applauded ;  if  he  were  caught  in  the 
act,  he  was  severely  flogged ;  but  though  he  were  whipped  to  death, 
he  must  neither  wince  nor  groan.* 


EAST  END   OF  THE   PARTHENON   (aS  RESTORED   BY    FERGUSSON). 


Monuments  and  Art. — The  three  styles  of  Grecian  architecture 
— Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian — are  distinguished  by  the  shape  of 
their  columns  (see  cut,  p.  70).  Of  the  Doric,  which  was  originally 
borrowed  from  Egypt,  the  splendid  Parthenon  at  Athens,  and  the 
Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  were  among  the  most  celebrated. 

The  Parthenon  or  House  of  the  Virgin,  situated  on  the  Acropolis, 

*  The  Spartan  lad  had  a  model  set  before  him.  It  was  that  of  a  boy  who  stole  a 
fox  and  hid  it  under  his  short  cloak.  He  must  have  been  somewhat  awkward— no 
doubt  the  Spartan  children  were  warned  against  this  fault  in  his  morals— for  he  was 
suspected,  and  ordered  to  be  flogged  till  he  confessed.  While  the  lashes  fell  the  fox 
struggled  to  escape.  The  boy,  with  lus  quivering  back  raw  and  bleeding,  and  his 
breast  torn  by  savage  claws  and  teeth,  stood  sturdily  and  flinched  not.  At  last  the 
desperate  fox  reached  his  heart,  and  he  dropped  dead— but  a  hero  I 


THE     CIVILIZATION.  69 

was  sacred  to  Pallas  Athena,  the  patron  goddess  of  Attica.  It  was 
built  throughout  of  fine  marble  from  the  quarry  of  Mt.  Pentelicus, 
near  Athens,  its  glistening  whiteness  being  here  and  there  subdued 
by  colors  and  gilding.  The  magnificent  sculptures  *  which  adorned 
it  were  designed  by  Phidias— that  inimitable  artist  whom  Pliny  desig- 
nates as  "  before  all,  Phidias  the  Athenian."  The  statue  of  the  god- 
dess within  the  temple  was  forty  feet  high ;  her  face,  neck,  arms, 
hands  and  feet  were  ivory;  her  drapery  was  pure  gold.f 

The  Temple  at  Olympia  was  built  of  porous  stone,  the  roof  being 
tiled  with  Pentelic  marble.  It  stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Alpheus, 
in  a  sacred  grove  (Altis)  of  plane  and  olive  trees.  The  statue  of  the 
Deity,  by  Phidias,  was  so  superstitiously  venerated  that  not  to  liave 
seen  it  was  considered  a  real  calamity.  J 

'The  most  celebrated  Ionic  temple  was  that  of  Artemis  (Diana)  at 
Ephesus,  which  was  three  times  destroyed  by  fire,  and  as  often  re- 
built with  increased  magnificence.  Corinthian  architecture  was  not 
generally  used  in  Greece  before  the  age  of  Alexander  the  Great. § 
The  most  beautiful  example  is  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates 
(p.  76)  in  Athens, 

*  These  sculptures,  illustrating  events  in  the  mythical  life  of  the  goddess,  are  among 
the  finest  in  existence.  Some  of  them  were  sent  to  England  by  Lord  Elgin  when 
he  was  British  ambassador  to  Turkey,  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum,  where, 
with  various  other  sculptures  from  the  Athenian  Acropolis,  all  more  or  less  muti 
lated,  they  are  known  as  the  Elgin  Marbles. 

t  The  Greeks  accused  Phidias  of  having  purloined  some  of  the  gold  provided  him 
for  this  purpose ;  but  as,  by  the  advice  of  his  shrewd  friend  Pericles,  he  had  so  at- 
tached the  metal  that  it  could  be  removed,  he  was  able  to  disprove  the  charge.  He 
was  afterward  accused  of  impiety  for  having  placed  the  portraits  of  Pericles  and  him- 
self in  the  group  upon  Athena's  shield.    He  died  in  prison. 

X  The  statue,  sixty  feet  high,  was  seated  on  an  elaborately-sculptured  throne  of 
cedar,  inlaid  with  gold,  ivory,  ebony,  and  precious  stones  ;  like  the  statue  of  Athena 
in  the  Parthenon,  the  face,  feet,  and  body  were  of  ivory ;  the  eyes  were  brilliant 
jewels,  and  the  hair  and  beard  pure  gold.  The  drapery  was  beaten  gold,  enameled 
with  flowers.  One  hand  grasped  a  scepter,  composed  of  precious  metals,  and  sur- 
mounted by  an  eagle ;  in  the  other,  like  Athena,  he  held  a  golden  statue  of  Nike  (the 
winged  goddess  of  victory).  The  statue  was  so  high,  in  proportion  to  the  building, 
that  the  Greeks  were  wont  to  say  that  "  if  the  god  should  attempt  to  rise  he  would 
burst  open  the  roof"  The  effect  of  its  great  size,  as  Phidias  had  calculated,  was  to 
impress  the  beholder  with  the  pent-up  power  and  majesty  of  the  greatest  of  gods. 
A  copy  of  the  head  of  this  statue  is  in  the  Vatican.  The  statue  itself,  removed  by 
the  emperor  Theodosius  I.  to  Constantinople,  was  lost  in  the  disastrous  fire  (a.  d.  475) 
which  destroyed  the  Library  in  that  city.  At  the  same  time  perished  the  Venus  of 
Cnidos,  by  Praxiteles  (p.  71),  which  the  ancients  ranked  next  to  the  Phidian  Zeus 
and  Athena. 

§  The  invention  of  the  Corinthian  capital  is  ascribed  to  Callimachus,  who,  seeing 
a  small  basket  covered  with  a  tile  placed  in  the  center  of  an  acanthus  plant  which 
grew  on  the  grave  of  a  young  lady  of  Corinth,  was  so  struck  with  its  beauty  that  he 
executed  a  capital  in  imitation  of  it.-~Westropp's  Band-book  of  Architecture, 


10 


GREECE. 


The  Propylea,  which  formed  the  entrance  to  the  Athenian 
Acropolis,  was  a  magnificent  structure,  and  opened  upon  a  group  of 
temples,  altars,  and  statues  which  has  never  been  equalled.  All  the 
splendor  of  Grecian  art  was  concentrated  on  the  state  edifices,  archi- 
tectural display  on  private  residences  being  forbidden  by  law.  After 
the  Macedonian  conquest,  dwellings  grew  luxurious,  and  Demosthenes 
once  severely  rebuked  certain  citizens  for  living  in  houses  whose 
ornamentation  surpassed  that  of  the  j)ublic  buildings. 


Doric. 


Ionic. 
THREE  ORDERS   OF  GRECIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


Corintliian. 


{j^  shaft :  1,  capital:  "i,  architrave  ;  ^,  frieze:  s,  cornice.  The  entire  part  above 
the  capital  is  the  entablature.  At  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is  the  base,  which  rests 
upon  the  Pedestal^ 

The  Athenian  Agora  (market-place),  which  was  the  fashionable 
morning  resort,  was  surrounded  with  porticoes,  one  of  which  was  deco- 
rated with  paintings commemorativeof  glorious  Grecian  achievements. 
Within  the  enclosure  were  grouped  temples,  altars,  and  statues. 

Paintings  were  usually  on  wood ;  wall-painting  was  a  separate 
and  inferior  art.  The  most  celebrated  painters  were :  Ai^ollodorus  of 
Athens^  sometimes  called  the  Greek  Rembrandt ;  Zeuxis  and  Paj'rha- 
sius,  who  contended  together  for  the  prize — Parrhasius  producing  a 
picture  representing  a  curtain,  which  his  rival  himself  mistook  for 
a  real  hanging,  and  Zeuxis  offering  a  picture  of  grapes,  which  de- 
ceived even  the  birds;  Ajjelles,  the  most  renowned  of  all  Greek 
artists,  who  painted  with  four  colors,  which  he  blended  with  a 


THE     MAKKERS     A  K  B     CUSTOMS.  71 

varnish  of  his  own  invention;  his  friend  Protogenes,  the  careful 
painter,  scul^jtor,  and  writer  on  art ;  Mcias,  who  having  refused  a 
sum  equal  to  seventy  thousand  dollars  from  Ptolemy  I.  for  his  master- 
piece, bequeathed  it  to  Athens ;  and  Pausias,  who  excelled  in  wall- 
painting,  and  in  delineating  children,  animals,  flowers,  and  ara- 
besques. The  Greeks  tinted  the  background  and  sometimes  the 
bas-reliefs  of  their  sculptures,  and  even  painted  their  inimitably- 
carved  statues,  gilding  the  hair  and  inserting  glass  or  silver  eyes. 

In  statuary,  both  marble  and  bronze,  and  in  graceful  vase- 
painting,  the  Greeks  have  never  been  surpassed.  Of  arts  and 
ornamentation  in  general,  all  those  which  we  have  seen  in  use  among 
the  previous  nations  were  greatly  improved  by  the  Greeks,  who  added 
to  other  excellencies  an  exquisite  sense  of  beauty  and  a  power  of 
ideal  expression  peculiar  to  themselves.  Besides  Phidias,  whose 
statues  were  distinguished  for  grandeur  and  sublimity,  eminent 
among  sculptors  were  Praxiteles,  who  excelled  in  tender  grace  and 
finish ;  Scopas,  who  delighted  in  marble  allegory ;  and  Lysippus^  a 
worker  in  bronze,  and  the  master  of  portraiture.* 


3.    THE    MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS. 

Religion  and  Mythology. — Nothing  marks  more  strongly  the 
poetic  imagination  of  the  Greeks  than  the  character  of  their  religious 
jj^orship.  They  learned  their  creed  in  a  poem,  and  told  it  in  marble 
sculpture.  To  them  Nature  overflowed  with  deities.  Every  grove 
had  its  presiding  genius,  every  stream  and  fountain  its  protecting 
nymph.  Earth  and  air  were  filled  with  invisible  spirits,  and  the  sky 
was  crowded  with  translated  heroes — their  own  half -divine  ancestors. 
Their  gods  were  intense  personalities,  endowed  with  human  passions 
and  instincts,  and  bound  by  domestic  relations.  Such  deities  appealed 
to  the  hearts  of  their  worshippers,  and  the  Greeks  loved  their  favorite 
gods  with  the  same  fervor  bestowed  upon  their  earthly  friends.  On 
the  summit  of  Mt.  Olympus,  beyond  the  impenetrable  mists,  accord- 
ing to  their  mythology,  the  twelve  f  great  gods  held  council. 

*  The  master-pieces  of  Praxiteles  were  an  undraped  Venus  sold  to  the  people  of 
Cnidos,  and  a  satyr  or  faun,  of  which  the  best  antique  copy  is  preserved  in  the 
Capitoline  Museum,  Rome.  This  statue- suggested  Hawthorne's  charming  romance, 
The  Marble  Faun.  The  celebrated  Niobe  Group  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence,  is  the 
work  of  either  Praxiteles  or  Scopas.  The  latter  was  one  of  the  artists  employed  on 
the  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus.  Lysippns  and  Apelles  were  favorites  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  who  would  allow  only  them  to  carve  or  paint  his  image. 

t  They  were  called  the  Twelve  Gods,  but  the  lists  vary,  increasing  the  actual 
number.  Roman  mythology  was  founded  on  Greek,  and  as  the  Latin  names  are  now 
in  e:eneral  use  they  have  been  interpolated  to  assist  the  pupil's  association. 


72  GEEECE. 

Zeus  (Jove  or  Jupiter)  was  supreme.  He  ruled  with  the  thunderbolts,  and  was 
king  over  gods  and  men.  His  symbols  were  the  eagle  and  the  lightning,  both  asso- 
ciated with  great  height.    His  two  brothers, 

Poseidon  (Neptune)  and  Hades  (Pluto)  held  sway  respectively  over  the  sea  and  the 
depths  under  ground.  As  god  of  the  sea,  Poseidon  had  the  dolphin  for  his  symbol ; 
as  god  over  rivers,  lakes,  and  springs,  his  symbols  were  the  trident  and  the  horse. 
Hades  had  a  helmet  which  conferred  invisibility  upon  the  wearer.  It  was  in  much 
demand  among  the  gods,  and  was  his  symbol.  The  shades  of  Hades,  wherein  the 
dead  were  received,  were  guarded  by  a  three-headed  dog,  Cerberus. 

Hera  (Juno),  the  haughty  wife  of  Zeus,  was  Queen  of  the  Skies.  Her  jealousy 
was  the  source  of  much  discord  in  celestial  circles.  The  stars  were  her  eyes.  Her 
symbols  were  the  cuckoo  and  the  peacock. 

Demeter  (Ceres)  was  the  bestower  of  bountiful  harvests.  Her  worship  was  con- 
nected with  the  peculiarly-sacred  Eleusinian  mysteries,  whose  secret  rites  have  never 
been  disclosed.  Some  think  that  ideas  of  the  unity  of  God  and  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  were  kept  alive  and  handed  down  by  them.  Demeter's  symbols  were  ears 
of  corn,  the  pomegranate,  and  a  car  drawn  by  winged  serpents. 

Hestia  (Vesta)  was  goddess  of  the  domestic  hearth.  At  her  altar  in  every  house 
were  celebrated  all  important  family  events,  even  to  the  purchase  of  a  new  slave, 
or  the  undertaking  of  a  short  journey.  The  family  slaves  joined  in  this  domestic 
worship,  and  Hestia's  altar  was  an  asylum  whither  they  might  flee  to  escape  punish- 
ment, and  where  the  stranger,  even  an  enemy,  could  find  protection.  She  was  the 
personification  of  purity,  and  her  symbol  was  an  altar-flame. 

Hephoestos  (Vulcan)  was  the  god  of  volcanic  fires  and  skilled  metal-work.  Being 
lame  and  deformed,  his  parents,  Zeus  and  Hera,  threw  him  out  of  Olympus,  but  his 
genius  finally  brought  about  a  reconciliation.  Mt.  Etna  was  his  forge,  whence  Pro- 
metheus stole  the  sacred  fire  to  give  to  man.    His  brother. 

Ares  (Mars)  was  god  of  war.    His  symbols  were  the  dog  and  the  vulture. 

Athena  (Minerva)  sprang  full-armed  from  the  imperial  head  of  Zeus.  She  was  the 
goddess  of  wisdom  and  of  celestial  wars,  and  the  especial  defender  of  citadels. 
Athena  and  Poseidon  contested  on  the  Athenian  Acropolis  for  the  supremacy  over 
Attica.  The  one  who  gave  the  greatest  boon  to  man  was  to  win.  Poseidon  with  his 
trident  brought  forth  a  spring  of  water  from  the  barren  rock ;  but  Athena  produced** 
an  olive-tree,  and  was  declared  victor.  As  a  war-goddess  she  was  called  Pallas 
Athene.    Her  symbol  was  the  owl. 

Aphrodite  (Venus)  was  goddess  of  love  and  beauty.  She  arose  from  the  foam  of 
the  sea.  In  a  contest  of  personal  beauty  between  Hera,  Athena,  and  Aphrodite, 
Paris  decided  for  Aphrodite.  She  is  often  represented  with  a  golden  apple  in  her 
hand,  the  prize  offered  by  Eris  (strife),  who  originated  the  dispute.  Her  symbol  was 
the  dove. 

ApoUon  (Apollo),  the  ideal  of  manly  beauty,  was  the  god  of  poetry  and  song. 
He  led  the  muses,  and  in  this  character  his  symbol  was  a  lyre  ;  as  god  of  the  fierce 
rays  of  the  sun,  which  was  his  chariot,  his  symbol  was  a  bow  with  arrows. 

Artemis  (Diana),  twin-sister  to  Apollo,  was  goddess  of  the  chase,  and  protector 
of  the  water-nymphs.  All  young  girls  were  under  her  care.  The  moon  was  her 
chariot,  and  her  symbol  was  a  deer,  or  a  bow  with  arrows. 

Hermes  (Mercury)  was  the  god  of  cunning  and  eloquence.  In  the  former  capacity 
he  was  associated  with  mists,  and  accused  of  thieving.  The  winged-footed  messen- 
ger of  the  gods,  he  was  also  the  guide  of  souls  to  the  realms  of  Hades,  and  of  heroes 
in  difficult  expeditions.  As  god  of  persuasive  speech  and  success  in  trade  he  was 
popular  in  Athens,  where  he  was  worshipped  at  the  street  crossings.*  His  symbol 
was  a  cock  or  a  ram. 

*  The  "Hermes"  placed  at  street  comers  were  stone  pillars,  surmounted  by  a 
human  bead  (p.  31). 


THE    MAKNERS     AKD    CUSTOMS.  73 

JDUmysos  (Bacchus),  god  of  wine,  with  his  wife  Ariadne^  ruled  the  fruit  season. 

Hebe  was  a  cup-bearer  in  Olympus. 

There  was  a  host  of  minor  deities  and  personifications,  often  appearing  in  a 
group  of  three,  such  as  the  Three  Graces,— beautiful  women,  who  represented  the 
brightness,  color,  and  perfume  of  summer;  the  Three  Fates,— stern  sisters,  upon 
whose  spindle  was  spun  the  thread  of  every  human  life ;  the  Three  Hesperides, — 
daughters  of  Atlas  (upon  whose  shoulders  the  sky  rested),  in  whose  western  garden 
golden  apples  grew  ;  the  Three  Harpies,— mischievous  meddlers,  who  personated  the 
effects  of  violent  winds  ;  Three  Gorgons,  whose  terrible  faces  turned  to  stone  all 
who  beheld  them ;  and  Three  Furies,  whose  mission  was  to  pursue  criminals. 

There  were  Nine  Muses,  daughters  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne  (Memory),  who  dwelt 
on  Mt.  Parnassus,  and  held  all  gifts  of  inspiration :  Clio  presided  over  History  ; 
Melpomene,  tragedy  ;  Thalia,  comedy ;  Calliope,  epic  poetry ;  Urania,  astronomy ; 
Euterpe,  music ;  Polyhymnia,  song  and  oratory;  Erato,  love-songs  ;  and  Terpsichore, 
dancing. 


PRESENTING  OFFERINGS  AT  THE  TEMPLE  OF  DELPHI. 

Divination  of  all  kinds  was  universal.  Upon  signs,  dreams,  and 
portents  depended  all  tlie  weighty  decisions  of  life.  Birds,  especially 
crows  and  ravens,  were  watched  as  direct  messengers  from  the  gods, 
and  so  much  meaning  was  attached  to  their  voices,  habits,  manner  of 
flight  and  mode  of  alighting,  that  even  in  Homer's  time  the  word  Urd 
was  synonymous  with  omen.  The  omens  obtained  by  sacrifices  were 
still  more  anxiously  regarded.  Upon  the  motions  of  the  flame,  the 
appearance  of  the  ashes,  and,  above  all,  the  shape  and  aspect  of  the 
victim's  liver,  hung  such  momentous  human  interests  that,  as  at 
Plataea,  a  great  army  was  sometimes  kept  waiting  for  days  till  success 
should  be  assured  through  a  sacrificial  calf  or  chicken. 

Oracles. — The  temples  of  Zeus  at  Dodona  and  of  Apollo  at  Delphi 
were  the  oldest  and  most  venerated  prophetic  shrines.  At  Dodona 
three  priestesses  presided,  to  whom  the  gods  spoke  in  the  rustling 


74  GBEECH. 

leaves  of  a  sacred  oak,  and  the  murmurs  of  a  holy  rill.  But  the 
favorite  oracular  god  was  Apollo,  who,  besides  the  Pythian  temple  at 
Delphi,  had  shrines  in  various  parts  of  the  land  *  The  Greeks  had 
implicit  faith  in  the  Oracles,  and  consulted  them  for  every  important 
undertaking. 

Priests  and  Priestesses  shared  in  the  reverence  paid  to  the  gods. 
Their  temple  duties  were  mainly  prayer  and  sacrifice.  They  were 
given  the  place  of  honor  in  the  public  festivities,  and  were  supported 
by  the  temple  revenues. 

Grecian  religion  included  in  its  observances  nearly  the  whole  range 
of  social  pleasures.  Worship  consisted  of  songs  and  dances,  proces- 
sions, libations,  festivals,  dramatic  and  athletic  contests,  and  various 
sacrifices  and  purifications.  The  people  generally  were  content  with 
their  gods  and  time-honored  mythology,  and  left  all  diflBcult  moral  and 
religious  problems  to  be  settled  by  the  philosophers  and  the  serious- 
minded  minority  who  followed  them. 

Religious  Games  and  Festivals. — The  Olympian  Games  were  held 
once  in  four  years  in  honor  of  Zeus,  at  Olympia.  Here  the  Greeks 
gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  protected  by  a  safe  transit 
through  hostile  Hellenic  states.  The  commencement  of  the  Festival 
month  having  been  formally  announced  by  heralds  sent  to  every  state, 
a  solemn  truce  suppressed  all  quarrels  until  its  close.  The  competitive 
exercises  consisted  of  running,  leaping,  wrestling,  boxing,  and  chariot- 
racing.  The  prize  was  a  wreath  from  the  sacred  olive-tree  in  Olympia. 
The  celebration,  at  first  confined  to  one  day,  came  in  time  to  last 
five  days.  Booths  were  scattered  about  the  Altis  (p.  181),  where  a  gay 
traflSc  was  carried  on  ;  while  in  the  spacious  council-room  the  ardent 
Greeks  crowded  to  hear  the  newest  works  of  poets,  philosophers,  and 
historians.  All  this  excitement  and  enthusiasm  were  heightened  by 
the  belief  that  the  pleasure  enjoyed  was  an  act  of  true  religious  worship. 
The  Pythian  Games,  sacred  to  Apollo,  occurred  near  Delphi,  in  the 
third  year  of  each  Olympiad,  and  in  national  dignity  ranked  next  to 
the  Olympic.  The  prize-wreath  was  laurel.  The  Nemean  and  the 
Isthmian  Games,  sacred  respectively  to  Zeus  and  Poseidon,  were  held 
once  in  two  years,  and  like  the  Pythian  had  prizes  for  music  and 
poetry,  as  well  as  gymnastics,  chariots,  and  horses.    The  Nemean 

*  A  volcanic  site,  having  a  fissure  through  which  gas  escaped,  was  usually  selected. 
The  Delphian  priestess,  having  spent  three  days  in  fasting  and  bathing,  seated  herself 
on  a  tripod  over  the  chasm,  where,  under  the  real  or  imaginary  effect  of  the  vapors, 
she  uttered  her  prophecies.  Her  ravings  were  recorded  by  the  attending  prophet, 
and  afterward  turned  into  hexameter  verse  by  poets  hired  for  the  purpose.  The 
Bhrewd  priests,  through  their  secret  agents,  kept  well  posted  on  all  matters  likely  to 
be  urged,  and  when  their  knowledge  failed,  as  in  predictions  for  the  future,  made  the 
responses  so  ambiguous  or  unintelligible  that  they  would  seem  to  be  verified  by  any 
result. 


THE    MAKiN^ERS    AKD     CUSTOMS.  75 

crown  was  of  parsley,  the  Isthmian  of  pine.  Sparta  took  interest 
only  in  the  Olympic  Games,  with  which  she  had  been  connected  from 
their  beginning,  and  which,  it  is  curious  to  note,  were  the  only  ones 
having  no  intellectual  competition.  Otherwise,  Sparta  had  her  own 
festivals  from  which  strangers  were  excluded. 

The  Pannthenaia,*  which  took  place  once  in  four  years  at  Athens, 
in  honor  of  the  patron  goddess,  consisted  of  similar  exercises,  termi- 
nating in  a  grand  procession  in  which  the  whole  Athenian  population 
took  part.  Citizens  in  full  military  equipment ;  the  victorious  con- 
testants with  splendid  chariots  and  horses  ;  priests  and  attendants 
leading  the  sacrificial  victims  ;  dignified  elders  bearing  olive-boughs  ; 
young  men  with  valuable,  artistic  plate  ;  and  maidens,  the  purest 
and  most  beautiful  in  Athens,  with  baskets  of  holy  utensils  on  their 
heads, — all  contributed  to  the  magnificent  display.  Matrons  from  the 
neighboring  tribes  carried  oak-branches,  while  their  daughters  bore 
the  chairs  and  sunshades  of  the  Athenian  maidens.  In  the  center  of 
the  procession  was  a  ship  resting  on  wheels,  having  for  a  sail  a  richly- 
embroidered  mantle  or  peplos,  portraying  the  victories  of  Zeus  and 
Athena,  wrought  and  woven  by  Attic  maidens.  The  procession  having 
gone  through  all  the  principal  streets  round  to  the  Acropolis,  marched 
up  through  its  magnificent  Propylea,  past  the  majestic  Parthenon,  and 
at  last  reached  the  Erechtheium,  or  Temple  of  Athena  Polias  (p.  82). 
Here  all  arms  were  laid  aside,  and,  amid  the  blaze  of  burnt-offerings 
and  the  ringing  paeans  of  praise,  the  votive  gifts  were  placed  in  the 
sanctuary  of  the  goddess. 

The  Feast  of  Dionysos  was  celebrated  twice  during  the  spring 
season,  the  chief  festival  continuing  for  eight  days.  At  this  time 
those  tragedies  and  comedies  which  had  been  selected  by  the  archon — 
to  whom  all  plays  were  first  submitted — were  brought  out  in  the 
Dionysiac  theatre  f  at  Athens,  in  competition  for  prizes. 

*  The  Panathenaic  Procession  formed  the  suhject  of  the  sculpture  on  the  frieze 
around  the  Parthenon  Cella,  in  which  stood  the  goddess  sculptured  by  Phidias,  Most 
of  this  frieze,  much  mutilated,  is  with  the  Elgin  Marbles. 

t  This  theatre  was  built  on  the  sloping  side  of  the  Acropolis,  and  consisted  of  a 
vast  number  of  semicircular  rows  of  seats  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  accommodating 
thirty  thousand  persons.  The  front  row,  composed  of  white  marble  arm-chairs, 
was  occupied  by  the  priests,  the  judges,  and  the  archons,  each  chair  being 
engraved  with  the  name  of  its  occupant.  Between  the  audience  and  the  stage  was 
the  orchestra  or  place  for  the  chorus,  in  the  center  of  which  stood  the  altar  of 
Dionysos.  Movable  stairs  letl  from  the  orchestra  up  to  the  stage,  as  the  course  of 
the  drama  frequently  required  the  conjunction  of  the  chorus  with  the  actors.  The 
stage  itself  extended  the  whole  width  of  the  theatre,  but  was  quite  narrow,  except 
at  the  center,  where  the  representation  took  place.  It  was  supported  by  a  white 
marble  wall,  handsomely  carved.  There  was  a  variety  of  machinery  for  change  of 
scenes  and  for  producing  startling  effects,  such  as  the  rolling  of  thunder,  the  descent 
of  gods  from  heaven,  the  rising  of  ghosts  and  demons  from  below,  etc.    The  theatre 


76  GREECE. 

Each  tribe  furnished  a  chorus  of  dancers  and  musicians,  and  chose 
a  choragus,  whose  business  was  not  only  to  superintend  the  training 
and  costumes  of  the  performers,  but  also  to  bear  all  the  expense  of 
bringing  out  the  play  assigned  to  him.  The  office  was  one  of  high 
dignity,  and  immense  sums  were  spent  by  the  choragi  in  their  efforts 
to  eclipse  each  other  ;  the  one  adjudged  to  have  given  the  best  enter- 
tainment received  a  tripod,  which  was  formally  consecrated  in  the 
temples  and  placed  upon  its  own  properly-inscribed  monument  in  the 
Street  of  Tripods,  near  the  theatre. 

The  Actors^  to  increase  their  size  and  enable  them  the  better  to  per- 
sonate the  gods  and  heroes  of  Greek  tragedy,  wore  high  soled  shoes, 
padded  garments,  and  great  masks  which  completely  enveloped  their 
heads,  leaving  only  small  apertures  for  the  mouth  and  eyes.  As  their 
stilts  and  stage-attire  impeded  any  free  movements,  their  acting  con- 
sisted of  little  more  than  a  series  of  tableaux  and  recitations,  while 
the  stately  musical  apostrophes  and  narrations  of  the  chorus  filled 
up  the  gaps  and  supplied  those  parts  of  the  story  not  acted  on  the 
stage.* 

TJie  'performance  began  early  in  the  morning  and  lasted  all  day, 
eating  and  drinking  being  allowed  in  the  theatre.  The  price  of  seats 
varied  according  to  location,  but  the  poorer  classes  were  supplied  free 
tickets  by  the  government,  so  that  no  one  was  shut  out  by  poverty 
from  enjoying  this  peculiar  worship. f  Each  play  generally  occupied 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two^  hours.  The  audience  was  exceedingly 
demonstrative  ;  an  unpopular  actor  could  not  deceive  himself  ;  his 
voice  was  drowned  in  an  uproar  of  whistling,  clucking,  and  hissing, 

was  open  to  the  sky,  but  an  awning  might  be  drawn  to  shut  out  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun,  while  little  jets  of  perfumed  water  cooled  and  refreshed  the  air.  To  aid  the 
vast  assembly  in  hearing,  brazen  bell-shaped  vases  were  placed  in  diflfercnt  parts  of 
the  theatre. 

*  In  comedy,  the  actors  themselves  often  took  the  audience  into  their  confidence, 
explaining  the  situation  to  them  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  commenting 
"  sisters,  cousins  and  aunts,"  during  Buttercup's  confession  in  the  PinaJ'<yre. 

t  Tragedy,  which  dealt  with  the  national  gods  and  heroes,  was  to  the  Greeks  a 
veritably  religious  exercise,  strengthening  their  faith,and  quickening  their  sympathies 
for  the  woes  of  their  beloved  and  fate-driven  deities.  When,  as  in  rare  instances, 
a  subject  was  taken  from  contemporaneous  history,  no  representation  which  would 
pain  the  audience  was  allowed,  and  on  one  occasion  a  poet  was  heavily  fined  for 
presenting  a  play  which  touched  upon  a  recent  Athenian  defeat.  Some  great  public 
lesson  was  usually  hidden  in  the  comedies,  where  the  fashionable  follies  were  merci- 
lessly satirized,  and  many  a  useful  hint  took  root  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  when 
given  from  the  stage,  that  would  have  fallen  dead  or  unnoticed  if  put  forth  in  the 
assembly.  "  Quick  of  thought  and  utterance,  of  hearing  and  apprehension,  living 
together  in  open  public  intercourse,  reading  would  have  been  to  the  Athenians  a  slow 
process  for  the  interchange  of  ideas.  But  the  many  thousands  of  auditors  in  the 
Greek  theatre  caught,  as  with  an  electric  flash  of  intelligence,  the  noble  thought,  the 
withering  sarcasm,  the  flash  of  wit,  and  the  covert  innuendo.*'— PMii;  SmWu 


THE     MANNERS     AND     CUSTOMS. 


77 


and  he  might  esteem  himself  happy  if  he  escaped  from  the  boards 
without  an  actual  beating.  The  favorite,  whether  on  the  stage  or  as 
a  spectator,  was  as  enthusiastically  applauded.*  In  comedies,  tumult 
was  invited,  and  the  people  were  urged  to  shout  and  laugh,  the  comic 
poet  sometimes  throwing  nuts  and  figs  to  them,  that  their  scrambling 
and  screaming  might  add  to  the  evidences  of  a  complete  success. 


GRECIAN   FEMALE   HEADS. 


M'arriage. — Athenians  could  legally  marry  only  among  themselves. 
The  ceremony  did  not  require  a  priestly  official,  but  was  preceded  by 
offerings  to  Zeus,  Hera,  Artemis,  and  other  gods  who  presided  over 
marriage.f  Omens  were  carefully  observed,  and  a  bath  in  water  from 
the  sacred  fountain,  Kallirrhoe,  was  an  indispensable  preparation.  On 
the  evening  of  the  wedding-day,  after  a  merry  dinner  given  at  her 

*  At  the  Olympian  games  when  Themistocles  entered,  it  is  related  that  the  whole 
assembly  rose  to  honor  him. 

t  In  Homer's  time  the  groom  paid  to  the  lady's  father  a  certain  sum  for  his  bride. 
Afterward  this  custom  was  reversed,  and  the  amount  of  the  wife's  dowry  greatly 
affected  her  position  as  a  married  woman.  At  the  formal  betrothal  preceding  every 
marriage  this  important  question  was  settled,  and  in  case  of  separation  the  dowry 
was  usually  returned  to  the  wife's  parents. 


78  GEEECB.       31 

father's  house,  the  closely-veiled  bride  was  seated  in  a  chariot  between, 
her  husband  and  his  "  best  man,"  all  dressed  in  festive  robes  and 
garlanded  with  flowers.  Her  mother  kindled  the  nuptial  torch  at  the 
domestic  hearth,  a  procession  of  friends  and  attendants  was  formed, 
and,  amid  the  joyful  strains  of  the  marriage-song,  the  whistling  of 
flutes,  and  the  blinking  of  torches,  the  happy  pair  were  escorted  to 
their  future  home.  Here  they  were  saluted  with  a  shower  of  sweet- 
meats, after  which  followed  the  nuptial  banquet.  At  this  feast,  by 
privilege,  the  women  were  allowed  to  be  present,  though  they  sat  at  a 
separate  table,  and  the  bride  continued  veiled.  The  third  day  after 
marriage  the  veil  was  cast  aside,  and  wedding-presents  were  received. 
The  parties  most  concerned  in  marriage  were  seldom  consulted,  and  it 
was  not  uncommon  for  a  widow  to  find  herself  bequeathed  by  her 
deceased  husband's  will  to  one  of  his  friends  or  relatives. 

Death  and  Burial. — As  a  portal  festooned  with  flowers  an- 
nounced a  wedding,  so  a  vessel  of  water  placed  before  a  door  gave 
notice  of  a  death  within.*  As  soon  as  a  Greek  died,  an  obolus  was 
inserted  in  his  mouth  to  pay  his  fare  on  the  boat  across  the  River 
Styx  to  Hades.  His  body  was  then  washed,  anointed,  dressed  in 
white,  garlanded  with  flowers,  and  placed  on  a  couch  with  the  feet 
toward  the  outer  door.  A  formal  lament  f  followed,  made  by  the  female 
friends  and  relatives,  assisted  by  hired  mourners.  On  the  third  day 
the  body  was  carried  to  the  spot  where  it  was  to  be  buried  or  burned. 
It  was  preceded  by  a  hired  chorus  of  musicians  and  the  male  mourners, 
who,  dressed  in  black  or  gray,  had  their  hair  closely  cut.J  The  female 
mourners  walked  behind  the  bier.  If  the  body  was  burned,  sacri- 
fices were  oflered ;  then,  after  all  was  consumed,  the  fire  was  extin- 
guished with  wine,  and  the  ashes,  sprinkled  with  oil  and  wine, 
were  collected  in  a  clay  or  bronze  cinerary.  Various  articles  were 
stored  with  the  dead,  such  as  mirrors,  trinkets,  and  elegantly-painted 
vases.  The  burial  was  followed  by  a  feast,  which  was  considered  as 
given  by  the  deceased.     Sacrifices  of  milk,  honey,  wine,  olives,  and 

*  The  water  was  always  brought  from  some  other  dwelling  and  was  used  for  the 
puriflcation  of  visitors,  as  everything  within  the  house  of  mourning  was  polluted  by 
the  presence  of  the  dead. 

+  Solon  sought  to  restrain  these  ostentatious  excesses  by  enacting  that,  except 
the  nearest  relatives,  no  women  under  sixty  years  of  age  should  enter  a  house  of 
mourning.  In  the  heroic  days  of  Greece  the  lament  lasted  several  days  (that  of 
Achilles  continued  seventeen),  but  in  later  times  an  early  burial  was  thought  pleasing 
to  the  dead.  The  funeral  pomp,  which  afterward  became  a  common  custom,  was 
originally  reserved  for  heroes  alone.  In  the  earlier  Attic  burials  the  grave  was  dug 
by  the  nearest  relatives,  and  afterward  sown  with  com  that  the  body  might  be  recom- 
pensed for  its  own  decay. 

X  When  a  great  general  died,  the  hair  and  manes  of  all  the  army  horses  wera 
cropped. 


THE     MAiJ^ERS     AND     CUSTOMS. 


79 


flowers  were  periodically  offered  at  the  grave,  where  slaves  kept  watch. 
Sometimes  a  regular  banquet  was  served,  and  a  blood -sacrifice  offered 
by  the  side  of  the  tomb.  The  dead  person  was  supposed  to  be  con- 
scious of  all  these  attentions,  and  to  be  displeased  when  an  enemy 
approached  his  ashes.  Malefactors,  traitors,  and  people  struck  by 
lightning*  were  denied  burial,  which  in  Greece,  as  in  Egypt,  was  the 
highest  possible  dishonor. 


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GRECIAN  WARRIORS  AND  ATTENDANT. 

Weapons  of  War  and  Defence.— The  Greeks  fought  with 
long  spears,  swords,  clubs,  battle-axes,  bows,  and  slings.  In  the 
heroic  age,  chariots  were  employed,  and  the  warrior,  standing  by  the 
side  of  the  charioteer,  was  driven  to  the  front,  where  he  engaged  in 
single  combat.  Afterward  the  chariot  was  used  only  in  races.  A 
soldier  in  full  armor  wore  a  leather  or  metal  helmet,  covering  his  head 
and  face  ;  a  cuirass  made  of  iron  plates,  or  a  leather  coat  of  mail  over- 
laid with  iron  scales ;  bronze  greaves,  reaching  from  above  the  knee 


*  Such  a  death  was  supposed  to  be  a  direct  punishment  from  the  gods  for  some 
great  offence  or  hidden  depravity. 


80  "  GREECE. 

down  to  the  ankle;  and  a  shield*  made  of  ox-hides,  covered  with 
metal,  and  sometimes  extending  from  head  to  foot.  Thus  equipped 
they  advanced  slowly  and  steadily  into  action  in  a  uniform  phalanx  of 
about  eight  spears  deep,  the  warriors  of  each  tribe  arrayed  together, 
so  that  individual  or  sectional  bravery  was  easily  distinguished.  The 
light  infantry  wore  no  armor,  but  sometimes  carried  a  shield  of  willow 
twigs,  covered  with  leather.  In  Homer's  time,  bows,  six  feet  long, 
were  made  of  the  horns  of  the  antelope.  Cavalry  horses  were  pro- 
tected by  armor,  and  the  rider  sat  upon  a  saddle-cloth,  a  luxury  not 
indulged  in  on  ordinary  occasions.  Stirrups  and  horseshoes  were  un- 
known. The  ships  of  Greece,  like  those  of  Phoenicia  and  Carthage, 
were  flat-bottomed  barges  or  galleys,  mainly  propelled  by  oars.  The 
oarsmen  sat  in  rows  or  banks,  one  above  the  other,  the  number  of 
banks  determining  the  name  of  the  vessel.f  Bows  and  arrows,  jav- 
elins, ballistas,  and  catapults  were  the  ofEensive  weapons  used  at  a 
distance,  but  the  main  tactics  consisted  in  running  the  sharp  iron  prow 
of  the  attacking  vessel  against  the  enemy's  broadside  to  sink  it,  or 
else,  steering  alongside,  boarding  the  enemy  and  making  a  hand-to- 
hand  fight. 

SCENES   IN   REAL    LIFE. 

Retrospect. — We  will  suppose  it  to  be  about  the  close  of  the 
fifth  century  B.  c,  with  the  Peloponnesian  War  jiist  ended.  The  world 
is  two  thousand  years  older  than  when  we  watched  the  building  of  the 
great  pyramid  at  Gizeh,  and  fifteen  centuries  have  passed  since  the 
Labyrinth  began  to  show  its  marble  colonnades.  Those  times  are  even 
now  remote  antiquities,  and  fifty  years  ago  Herodotus  delighted  the 
wondering  Greeks  with  his  description  of  the  ancient  ruins  in  the 
Fayoom.  It  is  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  since  Asshur-bani- 
pal  sat  on  the  throne  of  tottering  Nineveh,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty 
since  the  fall  of  Babylon.     Let  us  now  visit  Sparta. 

Scene  I.— A  Day  in  Sparta. — A  hilly,  unwalled  city  on  a  river 
bank,  with  mountains  in  the  distance.  A  great  square  or  forum 
(Agora)  with  a  few  modest  temples,  statues,  and  porticoes.  On  the 
highest  hill  (Acropolis),  in  the  midst  of  a  grove,  more  temples  and 

*  These  shields  were  sometimes  richly  decorated  with  emblems  and  inscriptions. 
Thus  iEschylus,  in  The  Seven  Chiefs  against  Thebes,  describes  one  warrior's  shield 
as  bearing  a  flaming  torch,  with  the  motto,  "  I  will  bum  the  city  ";  and  another  as 
having  an  armed  man  climbing  a  scaling-ladder,  and  for  an  inscription,  •'  Not  Mars 
himself  shall  beat  me  from  the  towers." 

t  A  ship  with  three  banks  of  oars  was  called  a  trireme ;  with  four,  a  quadrireme, 
etc.  In  the  times  of  the  Ptolemies  galleys  of  twelve,  fifteen,  twenty,  and  even  forty 
banks  of  oars  were  built.  The  precise  arrangement  of  the  oarsmen  iu  these  large 
fillips  is  not  known.    (See  cut,  p.  46) 


THE     MANNEKS     AlfD     CUSTOMS.  81 

statues,  among  them  a  brass  statue  of  Zeus,  the  most  ancient  in  Greece. 
In  the  suburbs  the  hippodrome,  for  foot  and  horse  races,  and  the 
platanistm — a  grove  of  beautiful  palm-trees,  partly  enclosed  by  run- 
ning streams — where  the  Spartan  youth  gather  for  athletic  sports.  A 
scattered  city,  its  small,  mean  houses  grouped  here  and  there;  its 
streets  narrow  and  dirty.     This  is  Sparta. 

If  we  wish  to  enter  a  house,  we  have  simply  to  announce  ourselves 
in  a  loud  voice,  and  a  slave  will  admit  us.  We  shall  hear  no  cry  of 
puny  infants  within ;  the  little  boys,  none  of  them  over  seven  years 
old  (p.  67),  are  strong  and  sturdy,  and  the  girls  are  few  ;  their  weak 
or  deformed  brothers  and  surplus  sisters  have  been  cast  out  in  their 
babyhood  to  perish,  or  to  become  the  slaves  of  whoever  should  rescue 
them.  The  mother  is  here  ;  a  brawny,  strong-minded,  strong-fisted 
woman,  whose  chief  pride  is  that  she  can  fell  an  enemy  with  one 
blow.  Her  dress  consists  of  two  garments,  a  chiton*  and  over  it  a 
peplos  or  short  cloak,  which  clasps  above  the  shoulders,  leaving  the 
arms  bare.  She  appears  in  public  when  she  pleases,  and  may  even 
give  her  opinion  on  matters  of  state.  When  her  husband  or  sons  go 
forth  to  battle  she  sheds  no  sentimental  tears,  but  hands  to  each  his 
shield,  with  the  proud  injunction,  "Return  with  it,  or  upon  it."  No 
cowards,  whatever  their  excuses,  find  favor  with  her.  When  the  blind 
Eurytus  was  led  by  his  slave  into  the  foremost  rank  at  Thermopylae, 
she  thought  of  him  as  having  simply  performed  his  duty ;  when 
Aristodemus  made  his  blindness  an  excuse  for  staying  away,  she  re- 
viled his  cowardice  ;  and  though  he  afterward  died  the  most  heroic  of 
deaths  at  Plataea,  it  counted  him  nothing.  She  educates  her  daughters 
to  the  same  unflinching  defiance  of  womanly  tenderness.  They  are 
trained  in  the  Palaestra  or  wrestling-school  till  they  can  run,  wrestle, 
and  fight  as  well  as  their  brothers.  They  wear  but  one  garment,  a 
short  sleeveless  chiton,  open  upon  one  side,  and  often  not  reaching  to 
the  knee.  The  Spartan  gentleman,  who  sees  little  of  his  family,  is 
debarred  by  law  from  trade  or  agriculture,  and,  having  no  taste  for  art 
or  literature,  spends  his  time,  when  not  in  actual  warfare,  in  daily 
military  drill,  and  in  governing  his  helots.  He  never  appears  in  public 
without  his  attendant  slaves,  but  prudence  compels  him  to  walk  be- 
hind rather  than  before  them.  In  the  street  his  dress  is  a  short,  coarse 
cloak,  with  or  without  a  chiton ;  perhaps  a  pair  of  thong-strapped 
sandals,  a  cane,  and  a  seal-ring.  He  usually  goes  bare-headed,  but 
when  traveling  in  the  hot  sun  wears  a  broad-brimmed  hat  or  bonnet. 
His  ideal  character  is  one  of  relentless  energy  and  brute  force,  and  his 

*  The  Doric  chiton  was  a  simple  woolen  shift,  consisting  of  two  short  pieces  of 
cloth,  sewed  or  clasped  together  on  one  or  both  sides  up  to  the  breast ;  the  parts 
covering  the  breast  and  back  were  fastened  over  each  shoulder,  leaving  the  open 
spaces  at  the  side  for  arm-holes,    It  was  confined  about  the  waist  with  a  girdle. 


82  GEEECB. 

standard  of  excellence  is  a  successful  defiance  of  all  pain,  and  an 
ability  to  conquer  in  every  fight. 

Scene  II.— A  Day  in  Athens  (4tli  century  b.  c.).— To  see  Athens 
is,  first  of  all,  to  admire  the  Acropolis.  A  high,  steep,  rocky,  but 
broad-crested  hill,  sloping  toward  the  city  and  the  distant  sea  ;  ascended 
by  a  marble  road  for  chariots,  and  marble  steps  for  pedestrians  ;  entered 
through  a  magnificent  gateway  (the  Propylsea) ;  and  crowned  on  its 
spacious  summit — one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  level  at  its 
base — with  a  grove  of  stately  temples,  "statues,*  and  altars. 

Standing  on  the  Acropolis,  on  a  bright  morning  about  the  year  300 
B.  c,  a  magnificent  view  opens  on  every  side.  Away  to  the  southwest 
for  four  miles  stretch  the  Long  Walls,  five  hundred  and  fifty  feet  apart, 
leading  to  the  Pirsean  harbor  ;  beyond  them  the  sea,  dotted  with  sails, 
glistens  in  the  early  sun.  Between  us  and  the  harbors  lie  the  porticoed 
and  templed  Agora,  bustling  with  the  morning  commerce ;  the  Pnyx,f 
with  its  stone  bema,  from  which  Demosthenes  sixty  or  more  years  ago 
essayed  his  first  speech  amid  hisses  and  laughter;  the  Areopagus, 
where  from  time  immemorial  the  learned  court  of  archons  has  held 
its  sittings  ;  the  hill  of  the  Museum,  crowned  by  a  fortress  ;  the  tem- 
pies  of  Hercules,  Demeter,  and  Artemis  ;  the  Gymnasium  of  Hermes  ; 
and,  near  the  Pirsean  gate,  a  little  grove  of  statues, — among  them  one 
of  Socrates,  who  drank  the  hemlock  and  went  to  sleep  a  hundred 
years  ago.  At  our  feet,  circling  about  the  hill,  are  amphitheatres  for 
musical  and  dramatic  festivals,  elegant  temples  and  colonnades,  and 
the  famous  Street  of  Tripods,  more  beautiful  than  ever  since  the  recent 
erection  of  the  monument  of  the  choragus  Lysicrates.  Turning  toward 
the  East  we  see  the  Lyceum,  where  Aristotle  walked  and  talked 
within  the  last  half  century  ;  and  the  Cynosarges,  where  Antisthenes, 
the  father  of  the  Cynics,  had  his  school.  Still  further  to  the  north 
rises  the  white  top  of  Mt.  Lycabettus,  beyond  which  is  the  plain  of 
Marathon  ;  and  on  the  south  the  green  and  flowery  ascent  of  Mt. 
Hymettus,  swarming  with  bees,  and  equally  famous  for  its  honey  and 

*  Towering  over  all  the  other  statues  was  the  bronze  Athena  Promachus,  by 
Phidias,  cast  out  of  spoils  won  at  Marathon.  It  was  sixty  feet  high,  and  represented 
the  goddess  with  her  spear  and  shield  in  the  attitude  of  a  combatant.  The  remains 
of  the  Erechtheium,  a  beautiful  and  peculiar  temple  sacred  to  two  deities,  stood  near 
the  Parthenon.  It  had  been  burned  during  the  invasion  of  Xerxes,  but  was  in  process 
of  restoration  when  the  Peloponnesian  War  broke  out.  Part  of  it  was  dedicated  to 
Athena  Polias,  whose  olive-wood  statue  within  its  walls  was  reputed  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven.  It  was  also  said  to  contain  the  sacred  olive-tree  brought  forth  by 
Athena,  the  spring  of  water  which  followed  the  stroke  of  Poseidon's  trident,  and 
even  the  impression  of  the  trident  itself  1 

t  The  two  hills,  the  Pnyx  and  the  Areopagus,  were  famous  localities.  Upon  the 
former  the  assemblies  of  the  people  were  held.  The  stone  pulpit  {bema),  from  which 
the  orators  declaimed,  and  traces  of  the  leveled  arena  where  the  people  gathered  tg 
listen,  are  still  seen  on  the  Puys. 


THE     MAKNERS    AND     CUSTOMS- 


83 


its  marble.  Through  the  city,  to  the  southeast,  flows  the  river  Ilissus, 
sacred  to  the  Muses.  As  we  look  about  us  we  are  struck  by  the  ab- 
sence of  spires  or  pinnacles.  There  are  no  hig^h  towers  as  in  Babylon ; 
no  lofty  obelisks  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  ;  and,  on  the  tiled  roofs, 
all  flat  or  slightly  gabled,  we  detect  many  a  favorite  promenade. 


GRECIAN  LADIES  AND  ATTENDANT. 


A  Greek  Home. — The  Athenian  gentleman  usually  arises  at  dawn, 
and  after  a  slight  repast  of  bread  and  wine  goes  out  with  his  slaves  * 
for  a  walk  or  ride,  previous  to  his  customary  daily  lounge  in  the  market- 
place. While  he  is  absent,  if  we  are  ladies  we  may  visit  the  house- 
hold. We  are  quite  sure  to  find  the  mistress  at  home,  for,  especially 
if  she  be  young,  she  never  ventures  outside  her  dwelling  without  her 
husband's  permission  ;  nor  does  she  receive  within  it  any  but  her  lady- 
friends  and  nearest  male  relatives.  The  exterior  of  the  house  is  very 
plain.  Built  of  common  stone,  brick,  or  wood,  and  coated  with  plastfer) 
it  abuts  so  closely  upon  the  street  that  if  the  door  has  been  made  to 
open  outward  (a  tax  is  paid  for  the  privilege)  the  comer-out  is  obliged 
to  knock  before  opening  it,  in  order  to  warn  the  passers-by.  The  dead- 
wall  before  us  has  no  lower  windows,  but  a  strong  door  furnished  with 


*  No  gentleman  in  Athens  went  out  unless  he  was  accompanied  by  his  servants. 
To  be  unattended  by  at  least  one  slave  was  a  sign  of  extreme  indigence,  and  no  more**^.*.* 
to  be  thought  of  than  to  be  seen  without  a  cane,  which  was  also  indispensable.    "A        * 
gentleman  found  going  about  without  a  walking-stick  was  presumed  by  the  police  to 
|)e  disorderly,  and  was  imprisoned  for  the  night," 


84  G  B  E  E  C  E  . 

knocker  and  handle,  and  beside  it  a  Hermes  (p.  32)  or  an  altar  to 
Apollo.  Over  the  door,  as  in  Egypt,  is  an  inscription,  here  reading, 
**  To  the  good  genius,"  followed  by  the  name  of  the  owner.  In  re- 
sponse to  our  knock,  the  porter,  who  is  always  in  attendance,  opens  the 
door.  Carefully  placing  our  right  foot  on  the  threshold — it  would  be 
an  unlucky  omen  to  touch  it  with  the  left — we  pass  through  a  long 
corridor  to  a  large  court  open  to  the  sky,  and  surrounded  by  arcades  or 
porticoes.  This  is  the  peristyle  of  the  andronitis,  or  apartments  be- 
longing to  the  master  of  the  house.  Around  the  peristyle  lie  the  ban- 
queting, music,  sitting  and  sleeping  rooms,  the  picture  galleries  and 
libraries.  A  second  corridor,  opening  opposite  the  first,  leads  to  another 
porticoed  court,  with  rooms  about  and  behind  it.  This  is  the  gynm- 
couitis,  the  domain  of  the  mistress.  Here  the  daughters  and  hand- 
maidens always  remain,  occupied  with  their  wool  carding,  spinning, 
weaving,  and  embroidery,  and  hither  the  mother  retires  when  her 
husband  entertains  guests  in  the  andronitis.  The  floors  are  plastered 
and  tastefully  painted,*  the  walls  are  frescoed,  and 
the  cornices  and  ceilings  are  ornamented  with 
stucco.  The  rooms  are  warmed  from  fire-places, 
or  braziers  of  hot  coke  or  charcoal ;  they  are  lighted 
mostly  from  doors  opening  upon  the  porticoes.  In 
the  first  court  is  an  altar  to  Zeus,  and  in  the  second 
the  never-forgotten  one  to  Hestia.  The  furniture 
is  simple,  but  remarkable  for  elegance  of  design. 
Along  the  walls  are  seats  or  sofas  covered  with 
AN  ANCIENT  BRAZIER,  sklus  or  purplo  carpets,  and  heaped  with  cushions. 
There  are  also  light  folding-stools  f  and  richly- 
carved  armchairs,  and  scattered  about  the  rooms  are  tripods,  support- 
ing exquisitely-painted  vases.  In  the  bedrooms  of  this  luxurious 
home  are  couches  of  every  degree  of  magnificence,  made  of  olive-wood 
inlaid  with  gold  and  ivory  or  veneered  with  tortoise-shell,  or  of 
ivory  richly  embossed,  or  even  of  solid  silver.  On  these  are  laid 
mattresses  of  sponge,  feathers,  or  plucked  wool;  and  over  them  soft, 
gorgeously-colored  blankets,  or  a  coverlet  made  of  peacock  skins, 
dressed  with  the  feathers  on,:J:  and  perfumed  with  imported  essences. 

*  In  later  times  flagging  and  mosaics  were  used.  Before  the  4th  century  b.  o.  the 
plaster-walls  were  simply  whitewashed. 

t  The  four-legged,  backless  stool  was  called  a  diphros ;  when  an  Athenian  gentle- 
man walked  out,  one  of  his  slaves  generally  carried  a  diphros  for  the  convenience  of 
his  master  when  wearied.  To  the  diphros  a  curved  back  was  sometimes  added,  and 
the  legs  made  immovable.  It  was  then  called  a  klismos.  A  high,  large  chair,  with 
straight  back  and  low  arms,  was  a  thronos.  The  thronoi  in  the  temples  were  for  the 
gods  ;  those  in  dwellings,  for  the  master  and  his  guests.  A  footstool  was  indispens- 
able, and  was  sometimes  attached  to  the  front  legs  of  the  thronos. 

^  ''  Que  of  the  greatest  improTements  introduced  \>f  the  Qreejss  into  the  art  of 


THE     MAKN^ERS     AKD     CUSTOMS.  S6 

The  mistress  of  tlie  house,  who  is  superintending  the  domestic  labor, 
is  dressed  in  a  long  chiton,  doubled  over  at  the  top  so  as  to  form  a  kind 
of  cape  which  hangs  down  loosely,  clasped  on  the  shoulders,  girdled 
at  the  waist,  and  falling  in  many  folds  to  her  feet.  When  she  ventures 
abroad,  as  she  occasionally  does  to  the  funeral  of  a  near  relation,  to 
the  great  religious  festivals,  and  sometimes  to  hear  a  tragedy,  she 
wears  a  cloak  or  himation.*  The  Athenian  wife  has  not  the  privileges 
of  the  Spartan.  The  husband  and  father  is  the  complete  master  of  his 
household,  and,  so  far  from  allowing  his  wife  to  transact  any  inde- 
pendent bargains,  he  may  be  legally  absolved  from  any  contract  her 
request  or  counsel  has  induced  him  to  make. — This  is  a  busy  morning 
in  the  home,  for  the  master  has  gone  to  the  market-place  to  invite  a 
few  friends  to  an  evening  banquet.  The  foreign  cooks,  hired  for  the 
occasion,  are  already  here,  giving  orders,  and  preparing  choice  dishes. 
At  noon,  all  business  in  the  market-place  having  ceased,  the  Athenian 
gentleman  returns  to  his  home  for  his  midday  meal  and  his  siesta,  f 
As  the  cooler  hours  come  on,  he  repairs  to  the  crowded  Gymnasium, 
where  he  may  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the  bath,  listen  to  the  learned 
lectures  of  philosophers  and  rhetoricians,  or  join  in  the  racing,  mili- 
tary, and  gymnastic  exercises.  X  Toward  sunset  he  again  seeks  his 
home  to  await  his  invited  guests. 

The  Banquet. — As  each  guest  arrives,  a  slave  §  meets  him  in  the 
court,  and  ushers  him  into  the  large  triclinium  or  dining-room,  where 
his  host  warmly  greets  him,  and  assigns  to  him  a  section  of  a  couch. 
Before  he  reclines,  |  however,  a  slave  unlooses  his  sandals  and  washes 

sleeping  was  the  practice  of  undressing  before  going  to  bed— a  thing  unheard  of  until 
hit  upon  by  their  inventive  genius,"— JF'e/^on. 

*  The  dress  of  both  sexes  was  nearly  the  same.  The  himation  was  a  large,  square 
piece  of  cloth,  so  wrapped  about  the  form  as  to  leave  only  the 'right  arm  free.  Much 
skill  was  required  to  drape  it  artistically,  and  the  taste  and  elegance  of  the  wearer 
were  decided  by  his  manner  of  carrying  it.  The  same  himation  often  served  for  both 
husband  and  wife,  and  it  is  related  as  among  the  unamiable  traits  of  Xantippe,  the 
shrewish  wife  of  Socrates,  that  she  refused  to  go  out  in  her  husband's  himation.  A 
gentleman  usually  wore  a  chiton  also,  though  he  was  considered  fully  dressed  in  the 
himation  alone.  The  lower  classes  wore  only  the  chiton,  or  were  clothed  in  tanned 
skins.  Eaiment  was  cheap  in  Greece.  In  the  time  of  Socrates  a  chiton  cost  about  a 
dollar,  and  an  ordinary  himation,  two  dollars. 

t  The  poorer  classes  gathered  together  in  groups  along  the  porticoes  for  gossip 
or  slumber,  where  indeed  they  not  unfrequently  spent  their  nights. 

X  Ball-playing,  which  was  a  favorite  game  with  the  Greeks,  was  taught  scien- 
tifically in  the  gymnasium.  The  balls  were  made  of  colored  leather,  stuffed  with 
feathers,  wool,  or  fig-seeds,  or,  if  very  large,  were  hollow.  Cock-and-quail  fighting 
was  another  exciting  amusement,  and,  at  Athens,  took  place  annually  by  law,  as  an 
instructive  exhibition  of  bravery. 

§  A  guest  frequently  brought  his  own  slave  to  assist  in  personal  attendance  upon 
himself. 

1  The  mode  of  reclining,  which  was  similar  to  that  in  Assyria,  is  shown  in  the 


86 


GR  fiECfi. 


A  GREEK  SYMPOSIUM. 


his  feet  in  perfumed  wine.  The  time  having  arrived  for  dinner,  water 
is  passed  around  for  hand  ablutions,  and  small,  low  tables  are  brought 
in,  one  being  placed  before  each  couch.  There  are  no  knives  and  forks, 
no  table-cloths  or  napkins.  Some  of  the  guests  wear  gloves  to  enable 
them  to  take  the  food  quite  hot,  others  have  hardened  their  fingers  by 
handling  hot  pokers,  and  one,  a  noted  gourmand,  has  prepared  him- 
self with  metallic  finger-guards.  The  slaves  now  hasten  with  the  first 
course,  which  opens  with  sweetmeats,  and  includes  many  delicacies. 


cut,  the  place  of  honor  being  next  the  host.  The  Greek  wife  and  daughter  never 
appeared  at  these  banquets,  and  at  their  every-day  meals  the  wife  nat  on  the  couch 
at  the  feet  of  her  master.  The  sons  were  not  permitted  to  recline  till  they  were 
Of  age. 


THE    MAKKEfeS    AKt)     CUSTOMS.  *    87 

Snch  as  thrushes,  hares,  oysters,  pungent  herbs,  and,  best  of  all, 
Copaic  eels,  cooked  crisp  and  brown,  and  wrapped  in  beet-leaves.* 
Bread  is  handed  around  in  tiny  baskets,  woven  of  slips  of  ivory.  Little 
talking  is  done,  for  it  is  good  breeding  to  remain  quiet  until  the  sub- 
stantial viands  are  honored.  From  time  to  time  the  guests  wipe  their 
fingers  upon  bits  of  bread,  throwing  the  fragments  under  the  table. 
This  course  being  finished,  the  well-trained  slaves  sponge  or  remove 
the  tables,  brush  up  the  dough,  bones,  and  other  remnants  from  the 
floor,  and  pass  again  the  perfumed  water  for  hand-washing.  Garlands 
of  myrtle  and  roses,  gay  ribbons,  and  sweet-scented  ointments  are 
distributed,  a  golden  bowl  of  wine  is  brought,  and  the  meal  closes 
with  a  libation. 

The  Symposium  is  introduced  by  a  second  libation,  accompanied  by 
hymns  and  the  solemn  notes  of  a  flute.  The  party,  hitherto  silent, 
rapidly  grow  merry,  while  the  slaves  bring  in  the  dessert  and  the  wine, 
which  now  for  the  first  time  appears  at  the  feast.  The  dessert  con- 
sists of  fresh  fruits,  olives  well  ripened  on  the  tree,  dried  figs,  imported 
dates,  curdled  cream,  honey,  cheese,  and  the  salt-sprinkled  cakes  for 
which  Athens  is  renowned.  A  large  crater  or  wine-bowl,  ornamented 
with  groups  of  dancing  bacchanals,  is  placed  before  one  of  the 
guests,  who  has  been  chosen  archon.  He  is  to  decide  upon  the  proper 
mixture  of  the  wine,f  the  nature  of  the  forfeits  in  the  games  of  the 
evening,  and,  in  fact,  is  henceforth  king  of  the  feast.  The  sport  be- 
gins with  riddles.  This  is  a  favorite  pastime  ;  every  failure  in  guessing 
requires  a  forfeit,  and  the  penalty  is  to  drink  a  certain  quantity  of 
wine.  Music,  charades,  dancing  and  juggling  performed  by  profes- 
sionals, and  a  variety  of  entertainments,  help  the  hours  to  fly,  and 
the  Symposium  ends  at  last  by  the  whole  party  inviting  them- 
selves to  some  other  banqueting-place,  where  they  spend  the  night 
in  revel.  X 


*  The  Greeks  were  extravagantly  fond  of  fish.  Pork,  the  abhorred  of  the 
tians,  was  their  favorite  meat.  Bread,  more  than  anything  else,  was  the  "  staff  of 
life,"  all  other  food,  except  sweetmeats— even  meat— being  called  relish.  Sweetmeats 
were  superstitiously  regarded,  and  scattering  them  about  the  house  was  an  invitation 
to  good  luck. 

t  To  drink  wine  clear  was  disreputable,  and  it  was  generally  diluted  with  two- 
thirds  water. 

X  The  fashionable  Symposia  were  usually  of  the  character  described  above,  but 
sometimes  they  were  more  intellectual,  affording  an  occasion  for  the  brilliant  display 
of  Attic  wit  and  learning.  The  drinking  character  of  the  party  was  always  the 
same,  and  in  Plato's  Dialogue,  The  Symposium^  in  which  Aristophanes,  Socrates,  and 
other  literary  celebrities  took  part,  the  evening  is  broken  in  upon  by  two  different 
bands  of  revelers,  and  daylight  finds  Socrates  and  Aristophanes  still  drinking 
with  the  host,  "Parasites  (a  recognized  class  of  people,  who  lived  by  sponging 
their  dinners)  and  mountebanks  always  took  the  liberty  to  drop  in  wherever  there 
was  a  feast,  a  fact  which  they  ascertained  by  walking  through  the  streets  and  snuffing 
at  the  kitchens."— i?Wton. 


88  G  E  E  E  C  £  « 


4.    SUMMARY. 

1.  Political  History. — The  Pelasgians  were  the  primitive  in- 
habitants of  Greece.  In  time  the  Hellenes  descend  from  the  north, 
and  give  their  name  to  the  land.  It  is  the  Heroic  Age,  the  era  of  the 
sons  of  the  gods — Hercules,  Theseus,  and  Jason — of  the  Argonautic 
Expedition  and  the  Siege  of  Troy.  With  the  Dorian  Migration 
("Return  of  the  Heraclidae")  and  their  settlement  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, the  mythic  stories  end  and  real  history  begins.  The  kings 
disappear,  and  nearly  all  the  cities  become  little  republics.  Hellenic 
colonies  arise  in  Asia  Minor,  rivaling  the  glory  of  Greece  itself.  Ly- 
curgus  now  enacts  his  cruel  laws  (850  B.  c).  In  the  succeeding  cen- 
turies the  Spartans— pitiless,  fearless,  haughty  warriors — conquer 
Messenia,  become  the  head  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  threaten  all 
Greece.  Meanwhile  Athens,  spite  of  Draconian  laws,  the  curse  of  the 
AlcmaeonidsB,  the  factions  of  the  men  of  the  plain,  the  coast,  and  the 
mountain,  and  the  tyranny  of  the  Pisistratidae,  by  the  wise  measures 
of  Solon  and  Cleisthenes  becomes  a  powerful  republic. 

Athens  now  sends  help  to  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  against  the 
Persians,  and  the  Asiatic  deluge  is  precipitated  upon  Greece.  Miltiades 
defeats  Darius  on  the  field  of  Marathon  (490  B.  c).  Ten  years  later 
Xerxes  forces  the  pass  of  Thermopylae,  slays  Leonidas  and  his  three 
hundred  Spartans,  and  burns  Athens  ;  but  his  fleet  is  put  to  flight  at 
Salamis,  the  next  year  his  army  is  routed  by  Themistocles  at  Plataea, 
and  his  remaining  ships  are  destroyed  at  Mycale.  Thus  Europe  is 
saved  from  Persian  despotism. 

The  Age  of  Pericles  follows,  and  Athens,  grown  to  be  a  great 
commercial  city — its  streets  thronged  with  traders  and  its  harbor  with 
ships — is  the  head  of  Greece.  Sparta  is  jealous,  and  the  Peloponnesian 
War  breaks  out  in  431  B.  c.  Its  twenty-seven  years  of  alternate  vic- 
tories and  defeats  end  in  the  fatal  expedition  to  Syracuse,  the  defeat 
of  JSgos  Potamos  and  the  fall  of  Athens. 

Sparta  is  now  supreme  ;  but  her  cruel  rule  is  broken  by  Epaminon- 
das  on  the  field  of  Leuctra.  Thebes  comes  to  the  front,  but  Greece, 
rent  by  rivalries,  is  overwhelmed  by  Philip  of  Macedon  in  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea.  The  conqueror  dying  soon  after,  his  greater  son, 
Alexander,  leads  the  armies  of  united  Greece  into  Asia.  The  battles 
of  Granicus,  Issus,  and  Arbela  subdue  the  Persian  empire.  Thence 
the  conquering  leader  marches  eastward  to  the  Indus,  and  returns  to 
Babylon  only  to  die  (333  b.  c).  His  generals  divide  his  empire  among 
themselves  ;  while  Greece,  a  prey  to  dissensions,  at  last  drops  into  the 
all-absorbing  Roman  empire  (146  b.  c). 


StJMMARY.  89 

S.  Civilization.— Athens  and  Sparta  differ  widely  in  thouglit, 
habits,  and  taste.  The  Spartans  care  little  for  art  and  literature,  and 
glory  only  in  war  and  patriotism.  They  are  rigid  in  their  self-dis- 
cipline, and  cruel  to  their  slaves.  They  smother  all  tender  home  sen- 
timent, eat  at  the  public  mess,  give  their  seven-years-old  boys  to  the 
state,  and  train  their  girls  in  the  rough  sports  of  the  palaestra.  They 
distrust  and  exclude  strangers,  and  maJse  no  effort  to  adorn  their 
capital  with  art  or  architecture. 

The  Athenians  adore  art,  beauty,  and  intellect.  Versatile  and 
brilliant,  they  are  fond  of  novelties  and  eager  for  discussions.  Law 
courts  abound,  and  the  masses  imbibe  an  education  in  the  theatre, 
along  the  busy  streets,  and  on  the  Pnyx.  In  their  democratic  city, 
filled  with  magnificent  temples,  statues,  and  colonnades,  wit  and  talent 
are  the  keys  that  unlock  the  doors  of  every  saloon.  Athens  becomes 
the  center  of  the  world's  history  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  fine  arts. 
Poetry  and  philosophy  flourish  alike  in  her  classic  atmosphere,  and  all 
the  provinces  feel  the  pulse  of  her  artistic  heart. 

Grecian  art  and  literature  furnish  models  for  all  time.  Infant 
Greece  produces  Homer  and  Hesiod,  the  patriarchs  of  epic  poetry. 
Coming  down  the  centuries  she  brings  out  in  song,  and  hymn,  and  ode, 
Sappho,  Simonides,  and  Pindar;  in  tragedy,  ^schylus,  Sophocles, 
and  Euripedes  ;  in  comedy,  Aristophanes  and  Menander ;  in  history, 
Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Xenophon ;  in  oratory,  Pericles  and 
Demosthenes  ;  in  philosophy,  Thales,  Pythagoras,  Socrates,  Plato,  and 
Aristotle  ;  in  painting,  Apelles ;  in  sculpture,  Phidias,  Praxiteles,  and 
Lysippus. 

Greek  mythology  invests  every  stream,  grove,  and  mountain  with 
gods  and  goddesses,  nymphs,  and  naiads.  The  beloved  deities  are 
worshipped  with  songs  and  dances,  dramas  and  festivals,  spirited 
contests  and  gorgeous  processions.  The  Four  Great  National  Games 
unite  all  Greece  in  a  sacred  bond.  The  Feasts  of  Dionysos  give  birth 
to  the  drama.  The  Four  Great  Schools  of  Philosophy  flourish  and 
decay,  leaving  their  impress  upon  the  generations  to  come.  Finally, 
Grecian  civilization  is  transported  to  the  Tiber,  and  becomes  blended 
with  the  national  peculiarities  of  the  conquering  Romans. 


.READING    REFERENCES. 

Grote's  Eistory  of  Greece.— Arnold's  History  of  Greece.—  Curtlus''8  History  of 
Oreece.—Felton's  Ancient  and  Modem  Greece.— History  Primers  ;  Greece,  and  Greek 
Antiquities,  edited  by  Green.— Smith'' s  Student's  Eistory  of  Greece.— Becker's  Chari- 
cles.—Guhl  and  Koner's  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans— Bryce's  History  of  Greece, 
in  Freeman's  Series.— Freeman's  General  Sketch  of  European  History.— Collier's 
History  of  Greece.— Heeren's  Historical  Researches.— Putz's  Hand-book  of  Ancient 
History.— Bulwer'8  Else  and  FaU  of  Athens. ^Williams's  Life  qf  Alexander  the 


00 


GHEECE. 


Oreat.—  ThirwdWs  History  of  Greece.— mebuhr's  Lectures  oh  Ancient  Bistory.— 
Xenophon's  Anabasis,  Memorabilia,  and  Cyropcedia.—St.  John's  The  Hellenes; 
Manners  and  Customs  of  Ancient  Greece.— Fergusson's  History  of  Architecture.— 
Stuart's  Antiquitiesof  Athens.— Mahc^y' 8  History  qf  Greek  Literature.— i^ckenbos' $ 
Ancient  Literature. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


B.C. 

Taking  of  Troy 1184 

CEolian  Migration 1124 

Dorian  Migration 1104 

Emigration  of  lonians  to  Asia  Minor  1044 

Commencement  of  Olympiads 776 

First  Messenian  War 743 

End  of  First  Messenian  War 724 

Second  Messenian  War 685 

Tyrtaeus  sent  by  the  Athenians  to 

Sparta 683 

Conquest  of  Messenia  — 668 

Legislation  of  Draco ,  624 

Conspiracy  of  Cylon 612 

Commencement  of  First  Sacred  War  594 

Legislation  of  Solon 594 

Council  of  Four  Hundred 594 

Pisistratus,  Tyrant  at  Athens 560 

Death  of  Solon 559 

Death  of  Pisistratus 527 

Accession  of  Darius  521 

Death  of  Harmodius  and  Aristo- 

geiton 514 

Tyranny  of  Hippias 514 

Expulsion  of  the  Pisistratids 510 

Return  of  Cleisthenes 508 

Spartan  Invasion  of  Attica 508 

Expedition  Against  Naxos 501 

Burning  of  Sardis 499 

Death  of  Aristagoras 497 

Capture  of  Miletus 494 

Invasion  of  Mardonius 492 

Battle  of  Marathon 490 

Accession  of  Xerxes 485 

Battle  of  Thermopylae 480 

Battle  of  Plataea  and  Mycale 479 

Supremacy  of  Athens 477 

Banishment  and  Death  of  Themis- 

tocles 471 

Battle  of  Eurymedon ,.  465 

Third  Messenian  War 464 

Law  of  Ephialtes 461 

Ostracism  of  Cimon 459 

Battle  of  Tanagra 457 

RecallofCimon 463 

Thirty  Yeare' Truce.... 446 


B.C. 

Conquest  of  Samos 440 

War  respecting  Epidamnus 435 

Corcyraean  War 434 

Peloponnesian  War  begins 431 

Plague  at  Athens ;  Death  of  Pericles  430 

Revolt  of  Lesbos 428 

Destruction  of  Plataea 427 

Capture  of  Cythera 434 

Peace  of  Nicias 421 

Battle  of  Mantinea 418 

Athenian  Expedition  to  Sicily 415 

Conclusion  of  Sicilian  War 413 

Return  of  Alcibiades  408 

Battle  of  Arginusae 406 

Battle  of  -^gos-potami 405 

Government  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  404 

Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand 400 

Expedition  into  Asia 395 

Conon  rebuilds  the  Walls  of  Athens  393 

Peace  of  Antalcidas 387 

Commencement  of  Olynthian  Wars.  383 

Beginning  of  Theban  War  378 

Battle  of  Naxos 376 

Battle  of  Leuctra 371 

The  Tearless  Battle 367 

Battle  of  Mantinea. 363 

Accession  of  Philip  of  Macedon 359 

Commencement  of  Social  War 357 

Birth  of  Alexander 356 

Sacred  War  begins 355 

Destruction  of  Olynthus 347 

Peace  between  Philip  and  the  Athe- 
nians   846 

Philip  made  Commander-in-Chief  of 

the  Amphictyonic  Forces 838 

Battle  of  Cheronoea 838 

Accession  of  Aleiander  the  Great. .  336 

Invasion  of  Asia 334 

Battle  of  Issus 833 

Lamian  War 824 

Death  of  Alexander 823 

Death  of  Cleomenes  ;  End  of  La- 
mian War 822 

Perdiccas  invades  Egypt 321 

Athens  surrenders  to  Cassander. ...  318 


CfiROltOLOGlCAL    TCABL^, 


91 


Beath  of  Phocion 

Division  of  the  Empire  of  Alex- 
ander  

Battle  of  Ipsus 

Death  of  Cassander 

Accession  of  Demetrius 

Demetrius  dethroned  by  Pyrrhus. . . 

Defeat  of  the  Gauls  at  Delphi 

Death  of  Pyrrhus 

Antigonus  besieges  Athens 

Aratus  elected  General  of  the 
Achaeans 

Aratus  expels  the  Macedonian  garri- 
son from  Corinth 

Accession  of  Cleomenes 

The  Macedonian  garrison  evacuates 
Athens 

Battle  of  Sellasia 

Philip  defeated  by  Lsevinus  

Philopoemen  made  General  of  the 
Achaeans 


c.  B.C. 

317     Battle  of  Chios 201 

Philip  lays  siege  to  Athens 200 

311     Battle  of  Cyno-cephalae 197 

301     Defeat  and  death  of  Nabis 192 

297     Death  of  Philopoemen 182 

294     Death  of  Philip 179 

287     War  with  Persia 171 

279     Battle  of  Pydna 168 

272     Taking  of  Corinth  by  Mummius 146 

Reduction  of  Greece  to  a  Roman 

Province 145 

251     Reduction  of  Macedonia  to  a  Roman 

Province 142 

A.D. 

Conquest  of  the  Eastern  Empire  by 

229        theTurks 1453 

221     Battle  of  Navarino 1827 

214     Greece  erected  into  a  Monarchy —  1828 

Abdication  of  Otho 1863 

208  I  Accession  of  George 1865 


Note.— The  following  Rule  may  be  useful  for  reducing  dates  in  Grecian  history 
from  years  B.  c.  to  Olympiads  :— 

Subtract  the  year  b.  c.  from  776,  divide  the  remainder  by  4,  and  add  1  to  the 
quotient,  and  1  to  the  remainder. 

Example.— The  date  of  the  battle  of  Salamis  is  b.  c.  480 ;  Thus,       776 


Consequently,  the  date  in  Olympiads  is  75.1 ;  or,  as  it  is 
more  generally  written,  01.  LXXV.  1. 


^396 

74 
1.1 


75.1 


BAS-RELIEF  OF  THE  NINE  MUSES. 


READINGS   IN  GREEK   HISTORY. 


Unity  of  Greece. — The  subdivision  of  Greece  into  a 
vast  number  of  small  states,  united  by  no  common  political 
bond,  and  constantly  at  war  with  one  another,  did  not  pre- 
vent the  formation  and  maintenance  of  a  certain  general 
Pan-Hellenic  feeling — a  consciousness  of  unity,  a  fnendli- 
ness,  and  a  readiness  to  make  common  cause  against  a  foreign 
enemy.  At  the  root  of  this  feeling  lay  a  conviction  of  iden- 
tity of  race.  It  was  further  fostered  by  the  possession  of  a 
common  language  and  a  common  literature  ;  of  similar 
habits  and  ideas ;  and  of  a  common  religion,  of  rites,  tem- 
ples, and  festivals,  which  were  equally  open  to  alL— Eaw- 

LINSOK. 


-The  first  state  which  attained  to  political  im- 
portance in  Greece  after  the  Dorian  invasion,  was  Argos. 
From  Argos,  according  to  the  tradition,  went  forth  the 
Dorian  colonists,  who  formed  settlements  in  Epidaurus, 
Troezen,  Phhus,  Sicyon,  and  Corinth ;  while  from  some  of 
these  places  a  further  extension  of  Doric  power  was  made, 
as  from  Epidaurus,  which  colonized  ^gina  and  Epidaurus 
Limera,  and  from  Corinth,  which  colonized  Megara.  Argos, 
the  prohfic  mother  of  so  many  children,  stood  to  most  of 
them  in  the  relation  of  protectress,  and  almost  of  mistress. 
Her  dominion  reached,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  isthmus ;  on 
the  other,  to  Cape  Malea  and  the  island  Cythera.  For 
three  or  four  centuries,  from  the  Dorian  conquest  to  the 
death  of  Pheidon  (about  b.  c.  744),  she  was  the  leading 


94  EEADIl^GS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

power  of  the  Peloponnese,  a  fact  which  she  never  forgot, 
and  which  had  an  important  influence  on  her  later  history. 
After  the  death  of  Pheidon,  Argos  declined  in  power ;  the 
ties  uniting  the  confederacy  became  relaxed;  the  govern- 
ment returned  to  its  previous  form ;  and  the  history  of  the 
state  is  almost  a  blank.  No  doubt  the  development  of 
Spartan  power  was  the  main  cause  of  this  decline;  but  it 
may  be  attributed  also,  in  part,  to  the  lack  of  eminent  men, 
and  in  part  to  the  injudicious  severity  with  which  Argos 
treated  her  perioecic  cities  and  her  confederates. — Rawlin- 

SOK. 

Lycurgus.— The  constitution  of  Sparta  is  generally  as- 
cribed to  Lycurgus,  who  is  believed  either  to  have  devised  it, 
or  at  least  to  have  introduced  it  among  his  countrymen. 
But  if  we  look  to  the  nature  of  the  Spartan  mstitutions,  and 
compare  them  with  those  of  the  other  Doric  states,  it  be- 
comes highly  probable  that  they  cannot  have  been  the  work 
of  one  particular  mind,  but  that  the  ground-work  at  least 
was  common  to  all  the  Dorians,  so  that  Lycurgus,  if  he  ever 
existed,  cannot  have  done  much  more  than  systematize  and 
supplement  that  which  he  already  found  in  operation.  The 
mythical  character  of  the  history  of  this  renowned  law-giver 
is  further  confirmed  by  the  different  statements  about  his 
descent  and  the  time  when  he  flourished ;  for  while  some 
regard  him  as  a  contemporary  of  the  Heracleid  conquerors, 
others  place  him  more  than  two  hundred  years  later,  that 
is,  about  B.  c.  884.  Sparta  was  governed  by  two  kings 
descended  from  Aristodemus,  whose  two  sons,  Eurysthenes 
and  Procles,  ruled  the  kingdom  in  common,  and  Lycurgus 
was  generally  believed  to  have  been  connected  with  one  of 
these  royal  houses.  By  an  act  of  justice  and  generosity  he 
secured  the  succession  to  a  posthumous  sou  of  his  brother^ 


READINGS     IN^     GEEEK     HISTORY.  95 

and  as  this  iDvolved  him  in  unpleasantries  with  the  infant's 
mother,  who  wished  to  marry  him,  he  left  his  country  and 
spent  the  best  part  of  his  Hfe  in  foreign  lands,  though  his 
countrymen  often  invited  him  to  return.  He  is  said  to  have 
gathered  information  in  the  most  distant  countries,  and  on 
his  return  he  found  Lacedaemon  in  a  state  of  anarchy  and 
poHtical  dissolution.  The  need  of  reform  was  generally  felt, 
and  having  secured  the  favor  of  a  large  body  of  the  lead- 
ing men  at  Sparta,  and  been  declared  by  the  Delphic  oracle 
to  be  wiser  than  ordinary  mortals,  he  successively  procured 
the  enactment  of  a  series  of  ordinances,  by  which  the  civil 
and  military  constitution  of  the  state,  the  distribution  of 
property,  the  education  of  the  citizens,  and  the  regulation 
of  their  daily  life  and  intercourse,  were  fixed  as  on  a  sacred 
and  immutable  basis.  Having  accomplished  his  great  work 
in  spite  of  violent  opposition,  he  went  to  Delphi,  first  bind- 
ing his  fellow-citizens  by  a  solemn  oath  to  make  no  change 
in  his  laws  till  his  return.  The  lawgiver  himself,  however, 
never  returned,  and  an  oracle  was  transmitted  to  Sparta 
declaring  that  she  should  flourish  as  long  as  she  observed 
his  laws.  When,  where,  and  how  he  died  was  never  known, 
but  the  Spartans  honored  him  as  a  god,  with  a  temple  and 
annual  sacrifices. 

This  story  about  the  famous  Spartan  lawgiver  was  believed 
by  nearly  all  the  ancients,  and  one  fact  seems  to  be  clear 
from  their  concurrent  testimony,  that  the  legislation  which 
is  described  as  the  work  of  Lycurgus,  delivered  Sparta  from 
anarchy  and  the  evils  of  misrule,  and  that  it  formed  the 
commencement  of  a  long  period  of  tranquillity  and  order. — 

SCHMITZ. 

Ol3mipic  Grames. — The  most  important  of  the  public 
festivals  was  that  which  was  solemnized  every  fifth  year  on 


96  READINGS     IN     GREEK  HISTORY. 

the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  in  the  territory  of  Elis  ;  it  lasted 
four  days,  and  from  Olyrapia,  the  scene  of  its  celebration, 
derived  the  name  of  the  Olympic  contest  or  games,  and  the 
period  itself  which  intervened  between  its  returns  was  called 
an  Olympiad.  The  origin  of  this  institution  is  involved  in 
obscurity,  partly  by  the  lapse  of  time  and  partly  by  the 
ambition  of  the  Eleans  to  exaggerate  its  antiquity  and 
sanctity.  The  immediate  object  of  the  meeting  was  the 
exhibition  of  various  trials  of  strength  and  skill,  which,  from 
time  to  time,  were  multiplied  so  as  to  include  almost  every 
mode  of  displaying  bodily  activity.  They  included  races  on 
foot  and  with  horses  and  chariots  ;  contests  in  leaping, 
throwing,  wrestling,  and  boxing ;  and  some  in  which  several 
of  these  exercises  were  combined,  but  no  combats  with  any 
kind  of  weapon.  The  equestrian  contests,  particularly  that 
of  the  four-horsed  chariots,  were,  by  their  nature,  confined 
to  the  wealthy ;  and  princes  and  nobles  vied  with  each  other 
in  such  demonstrations  of  their  opulence.  But  the  greater 
part  were  open  to  the  poorest  Greek,  and  were  not,  on  that 
account,  the  lower  in  public  estimation.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  pugilists,  Glaucus  of  Carystus,  had  first  given 
proof  of  his  uncommon  strength  while  he  was  following  the 
plough;  but  the  most  illustrious  family  in  Khodes,  those 
Diagorids,  who  boasted  of  the  blood  of  Aristomenes,  gloried 
in  having  produced  many  successful  competitors  for  the  like 
prize.  No  accidents  of  birth  or  station  could  affect  the 
inherent  dignity  of  contests  in  which  the  most  renowned  of 
the  heroes  had  excelled  and  delighted.  In  one  respect, 
those  of  the  later  period  were  more  honorable  than  those  of 
the  heroic  ages.  In  the  games  described  by  Homer  valuable 
prizes  were  proposed,  and  this  practice  was  once  universal; 
but  after  the  seventh  Olympiad,  a  simple  garland  of  leaves 
pf  the  wild  plive  w^9  substituted  a(  Olympia  as  the  only 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  97 

meed  of  victory.  The  mainspring  of  emulation  was  un- 
doubtedly the  celebrity  of  the  festival,  and  the  presence  of 
so  vast  a  multitude  of  spectators,  who  were  soon  to  spread 
the  fame  of  the  successful  athletes  to  the  extremity  of  the 
Grecian  world.  But  other  honors  and  advantages  were 
annexed  to  this  triumph  by  the  pride  or  policy  of  particular 
states.  Even  the  most  powerful  city  regarded  an  Olympic 
victory,  gained  by  one  of  its  citizens,  as  reflecting  additional 
lustre  on  its  name ;  and  the  victor  was  sometimes  solicited 
to  let  himself  be  proclaimed  as  the  citizen  of  a  to^n  not  his 
own.  At  Athens,  by  the  law  of  Solon,  a  citizen  who  had 
gained  an  Olympic  prize  was  rewarded  with  five  hundred 
drachmas  and  with  the  right  to  a  place  at  the  table  of  the 
magistrates  in  the  prytaneum;  at  Sparta  he  was  honored 
with  a  conspicuous  post  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  AUis, 
as  the  ground  consecrated  to  the  games  was  called  at  Olym- 
pia,  was  adorned  with  numberless  statues  of  the  victors, 
erected,  with  the  permission  of  the  Eleans,  by  themselves  or 
their  families,  or  at  the  expense  of  their  fellow-citizens.  It 
was  also  usual  to  celebrate  the  joyful  event,  both  at  Olympia 
and  at  the  victor's  home,  by  a  triumphal  procession,  in 
which  his  praises  were  sung,  and  were  commonly  associated 
with  the  glory  of  his  ancestors  and  his  country.  The  most 
eminent  poets  wilhngly  lent  their  aid  on  such  occasions, 
especially  to  the  rich  and  great.  And  thus  it  happened  that 
sports,  not  essentially  different  from  those  of  our  village- 
greens,  gave  birth  to  masterpieces  of  sculpture,  and  called 
forth  the  sublimest  strains  of  the  lyric  muse. — Thirwall. 

Wars  of  Messenia. — The  legislation  of  Lycurgus  secured 
to  Sparta  a  well-regulated  government  and  discipline,  and 
when  about  one  hundred  years  later  the  whole  of  Laconia 
was  finally  subdued,  the  Spartans  might  have  enjoyed  a 


98  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

period  of  repose  and  tranquillity.  But  their  warlike  spirit, 
and  the  love  of  conquest  fostered  by  so  many  years  of  war- 
fare with  the  ancient  Achaeans,  led  them  into  a  War  with 
Argos  for  the  possession  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Laconia, 
which  belonged  to  Argos,  but  was  finally  conquered  by  the 
Spartans. 

A  more  important  country  which  excited  their  jealousy 
and  covetousness  was  Messenia,  on  the  west  of  Laconia, 
which  was  far  more  fertile  and  productive  than  their  own. 
A  pretext  for  war  was  easily  found.  Frequent  acts  of 
hostility  had  been  committed  on  both  sides  of  the  frontier, 
and  a  private  wrong  done  by  a  Spartan  to  a  Messenian  led 
to  the  outbreak  of  a  war  between  the  two  countries,  which 
lasted  from  b.  c.  743  to  724.  The  Spartans  bound  them- 
selves by  an  oath  not  to  lay  down  their  arms  until  they  had 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  country;  and,  invading  it, 
they  massacred  the  defenceless  inhabitants  and  established 
themselves  in  the  town  of  Amphia,  in  the  north-east  of  Mes- 
senia. The  account  we  have  of  this  war  is  full  of  poetical 
lays  and  popular  traditions.  But  it  seems  certain  that  for 
several  years  the  Spartans,  sallying  forth  from  Amphia, 
ravaged  the  country  far  and  wide.  The  Messenians,  who 
suffered  severely,  fortified  themselves  on  Mount  Ithome,  and 
an  oracle  promised  them  the  victory  if  they  sacrificed  a  pure 
virgin  to  the  infernal  gods.  Aristodemus,  a  noble  Messe- 
nian, accordingly  offered  his  daughter  as  a  victim,  and  when 
the  Spartans  learned  that  the  command  of  the  oracle  had 
been  complied  with,  they  were  discouraged,  and  for  a  time 
stopped  the  war  against  their  neighbors.  After  some  years 
the  Spartan  king,  Theopompus,  again  led  an  army  into 
Messenia  and  fought  a  great  battle,  in  which  the  Messenian 
king  was  killed.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  patriotic  Aristo- 
demus, who  was  extremely  popular,  governed  his  kingdom 


HEADINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  99 

wisely,  and  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Arcadians. 
The  war  was  continued  by  ravaging  inroads,  especially  at 
the  harvest  time,  when  the  Spartans  destroyed  the  crops  of 
the  Messenians,  and  thus  tried  to  reduce  them  by  famine. 
At  last,  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign  of  Aristodemus,  a 
pitched  battle  was  fought  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ithome,  in 
which  the  Spartans  suffered  a  great  defeat.  But  in  the  end 
the  Messenians  lost  heart  in  consequence  of  unfavorable 
oracles  and  several  successful  undertakings  of  the  Spartans, 
and  Aristodemus,  in  despair,  put  an  end  to  his  life.  This 
untoward  event  deprived  the  Messenians  of  all  liope,  but  not 
of  their  courage,  and  once  more  they  made  a  vigorous  sally 
from  Mount  Ithome.  But  when  their  brave  leaders  had 
fallen  the  people  fled  from  their  fortress,  leaving  their  lands 
in  the  possession  of  the  conquerors,  and  the  war  was  at  an 
end. 

The  accounts  of  the  second  Messenian  war  are  even  more 
mixed  up  with  fables  and  poetical  tales  than  the  first,  though 
the  war  itself  is  beyond  all  doubt.  Aristomenes,  a  noble 
Messenian  of  great  valor,  is  said  to  have  rallied  his  country- 
men, and  to  have  fought  a  great  battle  before  assistance 
could  come  from  Sparta ;  but  the  victory  was  not  decisive, 
though  the  Spartans  were  terror-struck  by  the  unexpected 
insurrection.  The  Messenians  wished  to  make  Aristomenes 
their  king,  but  he  refused  the  crown,  and  one  night  is  said, 
with  extraordinary  daring,  to  have  entered  the  city  of  Sparta, 
and  to  have  dedicated  a  trophy  in  the  temple  of  Athens. 
When  the  Spartans  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi,  the 
answer  was,  that  they  should  seek  an  Athenian  counsellor, 
and  the  Athenians  sent  them  the  warlike  poet  Tyrtseus  to 
assist  them  in  the  war.  The  spirit  of  the  Messenians  was  kept 
up  by  their  exiled  countrymen  and  by  the  soothsayer  Th co- 
des.    In  a  great  battle  near  Stenyclaros,  the  Spartans  were 


100  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

completely  routed,  and  for  a  time  Messenia  was  freed  from 
her  enemies.  Afterward  Aristomenes  even  carried  the  war 
into  Laconia,  and  ravaged  towns  and  villages  until  his  pro- 
gress was  stopped  by  a  wound.  Some  years  later  the  Si)ar- 
tans  gained  a  victory  through  the  treachery  of  the  Arca- 
dians. Aristomenes  then  fortified  himself  on  Mount  Ira, 
where  he  was  besie^'ed  by  the  enemy,  who  laid  waste  the 
surrounding  country,  though  not  without  being  perpetually 
harassed  by  the  sallies  of  the  Messenians.  Aristomenes  even 
made  nocturnal  expeditions  into  Laconia,  and  after  some 
successful  enterprises  of  this  kind,  he  at  last  fell  with  his 
companions  into  the  hands  of  the  Spartans,  who  treated 
them  like  vile  malefactors,  and  threw  them  into  a  deep  pit 
called  the  Ceadas.  But  the  life  of  Aristomenes  was  saved  in  a 
marvellous  manner.  He  rejoined  his  men  at  Ira,  and  after 
many  adventures  and  successes,  he  somehow  or  other  in- 
curred the  anger  of  the  gods.  Ira  had  been  besieged  for 
eleven  years,  and  was  at  last  delivered  by  treachery  into  the 
hands  of  the  besiegers.  Aristomenes,  with  a  few  followers, 
had  forced  his  way  through  the  besiegers  and  escaped  into 
Arcadia,  whence  afterwards  he  invaded  Laconia,  and  was 
killed,  sword  in  hand.  After  this  war  all  the  Messenians 
remaining  in  the  country  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
Helots  ;  the  rest  emigrated,  and  some  of  them  sailed  to 
Ehegium  in  Southern  Italy,  and  there  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  town  of  Zancle  on  the  opposite  coast  of 
Sicily,  which  was  henceforth  called  Messana  (the  modern 
Messina). — Schmitz. 

Cypselus  and  Feriander. — According  to  Herodotos, 
the  Bacchiad  oligarchs  of  Corinth  had  been  warned  by  the 
Delphian  priestess  to  be  on  their  guard  against  the  lion  which 
should  be  born  of  an  eagle  among  the  rocks  (Petrai) ;  and 


READINGS     IK     GREEK     H  "E  i^ -i"  6' li  Y ;    >         lOl'- 

when  Eetion,  one  of  the  Lapithas,  sent  fo'^  Delphi  1x3  "T^aVii* 
the  fortunes  of  the  child  of  his  wife  Labda,  the  lame  daugh- 
ter of  the  Bacchiad  Amphion,  the  answer  that  he  would  be 
the  bane  of  the  Corinthian  oligarchs  determined  the  latter 
to  slay  the  babe  as  soon  as  it  should  be  born.  Ten  of  them 
accordingly  went  to  the  house  of  Eetion  in  the  demos  of  Petrai 
(the  rocks  among  which  the  lion  should  be  born),  and  there 
received  the  child  from  the  unsuspecting  Labda.  But  the 
man  who  took  him  from  his  mothei-'s  hands,  unnerved  by  a 
smile  of  the  babe,  handed  him  on  to  the  next  man,  and  this 
man  to  the  third,  until,  when  all  had  in  turn  taken  him, 
the  tenth  restored  him  to  Labda,  who,  pausing  to  listen  at 
the  door,  had  heard  them  chiding  each  other  for  their  faint- 
heartedness, until  they  agreed  to  enter  the  house  together 
and  slay  the  child.  Before  they  went  in  the  mother  had  had 
time  to  place  him  in  a  chest;  and  the  murderers,  thus  foiled, 
went  back  and  informed  the  Bacchiads  that  they  had  done 
the  work  for  which  they  had  been  sent.  The  child  grew  up, 
and,  as  having  been  saved  from  his  pursuers  in  the  coffers, 
was  called  Cypselus.  Having  reached  manhood,  he  became 
tyrant  of  Corinth,  and  verified  the  predictions  of  the  Del- 
phian priestess.  Many  of  the  Corinthians,  we  are  told,  he  drove 
into  exile,  many  more  he  deprived  of  all  their  goods,  and  a 
larger  number  still  he  put  to  death.  Writing  at  least  two 
centuries  later,  Aristotle  places  Cypselus  in  the  ranks  of 
those  tyrants  who  rose  to  power  by  courting  the  favor  of  the 
people,  and  ascribes  to  him  so  firm  a  hold  on  their  affec- 
tions that  he  never  needed,  nor  used,  the  protection  of  a 
body-guard.  The  two  traditions,  if  they  be  such,  exclude 
each  other. 

But,  strange  as  may  be  the  inconsistencies  of  these  Cypse- 
lid  legends,  the  stories  told  of  his  son  Periander  are  far  more 
astonishing.  He  is  a  model  tyrant,  chastising  with  scorpions 


•10?.  '.E'E'VllWGS    IK    GREEK    HISTORY. 

Wh^re'his  father  had  scourged  with  whips,  and  taking  lessons 
in  his  art  from  Thrasyhulus,  tyrant  of  Miletus.  This  despot, 
we  are  told,  on  receiving  from  Periander  a  request  for 
counsel  in  the  general  management  of  his  affairs,  gave  no 
verbal  answer  to  his  messenger,  but  going  into  a  cornfield, 
cut  off  and  threw  away  the  tallest  and  richest  of  the  ears  of 
corn.  Periander  thus  knew  that  he  should  deal  with  the 
first  men  of  his  city  as  his  friend  had  dealt  with  the  ears  of 
corn,  and  the  mildness  of  his  previous  rule  was  followed  by 
a  savage  and  merciless  oppression.  Whatever  the  father  had 
spared  now  fell  by  the  hand  of  his  blood-thirsty  son,  who  in 
one  day  stripped  of  their  raiment  all  the  women  of  Corinth, 
whether  free  or  enslaved,  and  burned  the  dresses,  that  their 
ghosts  might  clothe  the  shivering  phantom  of  his  beautiful 
wife  Melissa,  the  daughter  of  Procles,  tyrant  of  Epidauros. 
Melissa  had  been  murdered  by  her  husband;  and  on  hearing 
of  the  crime,  Procles  sent  for  her  two  sons,  and  having 
kept  them  for  some  time,  bid  them,  at  parting,  remember 
who  it  was  that  had  slain  their  mother.  On  the  elder  son 
the  words  made  no  impression  ;  in  the  younger  they  awak- 
ened a  feeling  of  ineradicable  hatred  for  his  father,  whom  he 
treated  with  silent  contempt.  The  patience  of  Periander 
was  at  last  exhausted,  and  the  young  man  was  driven  from 
his  home,  a  heavy  penalty,  to  be  paid  to  Apollo,  being  de- 
nounced on  all  who  might  speak  to  him  or  give  him  food  or 
shelter.  Undismayed,  Lycophron  lived  as  best  he  might  in 
the  porticoes,  where  his  father  came  to  see  him  when  he  was 
half  starved.  Contrasting  his  present  misery  with  the  luxury 
which  he  had  forfeited,  Periander  prayed  him  to  return  home. 
The  only  answer  of  the  young  man  was,  that  his  father  was 
debtor  to  Apollo  for  the  penalty  denounced  on  any  who  might 
speak  to  him.  Wearied  out  with  his  obstinacy,  the  tyrant  sent 
his  son   to   Corcyra,    and  then,    marching    to  Epidauros, 


EEADiKGS    llf    GREEK    HISTORY.  103 

made  Procles  a  prisoner.  But  still  yearning  for  his  younger 
son,  he  sent  his  sister,  who,  in  a  speech  garnished  with  a 
profusion  of  proverbs  worthy  of  Sancho  Panza,  besought 
him  to  return  to  Corinth.  The  answer  was  that  he  would 
never  look  on  its  walls  so  long  as  his  father  was  there ;  and 
Periander,  in  his  despair,  proposed  that  he  should  go  to  Cor- 
cyra,  while  his  son  took  his  place  as  despot  at  Corinth.  So 
great,  however,  was  the  dread  or  the  hatred  of  Periander, 
that,  on  hearing  of  the  proposed  arrangement,  the  Corcy- 
raeans  at  once  put  Lycophron  to  death.  We  need  only  to  note 
further  that  this  rigid  ruler  or  blood-thirsty  murderer  is  in 
other  legends  ranked  among  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Hellas, 
and  that  from  this  point  of  view  he  is  represented  as  com- 
pelling his  subjects  to  support  themselves  by  honest  industry, 
and  to  make  a  report  of  their  means  of  livelihood. — Cox. 

Laws  of  Draco. — The  government  of  the  Eupatrids 
(Athenian  nobles),  like  most  of  the  early  oligarchies,  seems 
to  have  been  oppressive.  In  the  absence  of  written  laws,  the 
archons  possessed  an  arbitrary  power,  of  which  they  probably 
availed  themselves  to  the  benefit  of  their  friends  and  their 
order,  and  to  the  injury  of  the  general  body  of  citizens.  The 
consequence  was  great  discontent,  which  at  length  became 
so  serious  that  Draco  was  appointed  in  624  b.  c.  to  draw  up 
a  written  code  of  laws.  He  did  not  change,  the  political  con- 
stitution of  Athens,  and  the  most  remarkable  characteristic 
of  his  laws  was  their  extreme  severity.  He  affixed  the  penalty 
of  death  to  all  crimes  alike, — to  petty  thefts,  for  instance, 
as  well  as  to  sacrilege  and  murder.  Hence  they  were  said  to 
have  been  written,  not  in  ink,  but  in  blood  ;  and  we  are  told 
that  he  justified  this  extreme  harshness  by  saying  that  small 
offences  deserved  death,  and  he  knew  no  severer  punishment 
for  great  ones.     This  severity  must  be  attributed  rather  to  the 


104  READINGS    IN    GEEEK    HISTORY* 

spirit  of  the  times,  than  to  any  peculiar  harshness  in  Draco 
himself;  for  he  probably  did  little  more  than  reduce  to 
writing  the  ordinances  which  had  previously  regulated  his 
brother  Eupatrids  in  their  decision  of  cases.  His  laws  would 
of  course  appear  excessively  severe  to  a  later  age,  long  accus- 
tomed to  a  milder  system  of  jurisprudence;  but  there  is  rea- 
son for  believing  that  their  severity  has  been  somewhat  exag- 
gerated. In  one  instance,  indeed,  Draco  softened  the  ancient 
rigor  of  the  law.  Before  his  time  all  homicides  were  tried 
by  the  senate  of  the  Areopagus,  and  if  found  guilty,  were  con- 
demned to  suffer  the  full  penalty  of  the  law, — either  death,  or 
perpetual  banishment  with  confiscation  of  property.  The 
senate  had  no  power  to  take  account  of  any  extenuating  or 
justifying  circumstances.  Draco  left  to  this  ancient  body  the 
trial  of  all  cases  of  wilful  murder ;  but  he  appointed  fifty-one 
new  judges  called  EphetcBy  who  were  to  try  all  cases  of  homi- 
cide in  which  accident  or  any  other  justification  could  be 
pleaded.  His  regulations  with  respect  to  homicide  continued 
in  use  after  his  other  ordinances  had  been  repealed  by  Solon. 
— Smith. 

Conspiracy  of  Cylon. — Cylon,  an  Athenian  patrician — 
who  superadded,  to  a  great  family  position,  the  personal 
celebrity  of  a  victory  at  Olympia.  as  runner  in  the  double 
stadium— conceived  the  design  of  seizing  the  Acropolis 
and  constituting  himself  despot.  He  obtained  both  en- 
couragement and  valuable  aid  from  his  father-in-law,  Thea- 
genes  of  Megara,  who,  by  means  of  his  popularity  with  the 
people,  had  already  subverted  the  Megarian  oligarchy,  and 
become  despot  of  his  native  city.  Previous  to  so  hazardous 
an  attempt,  however,  Cylon  consulted  the  Delphian  oracle, 
and  was  advised  by  the  god  in  reply,  to  take  the  opportunity 
of  "the  greatest  festival  of  Zeus"  for  seizing  the  Acropohs, 


ilEADINGS     IN    'GREEK     HISTORY.  105 

Such  expressions,  in. the  natural  interpretations  put  upon 
them  by  every  Greek,  designated  the  Olympic  games  in 
Peloponnesus.  To  Oylon,  that  interpretation  came  recom- 
mended by  an  apparent  peculiar  propriety.  But  Thucy- 
dides,  not  indifferent  to  the  credit  of  any  oracle,  reminds  his 
readers  that  no  question  was  asked  nor  any  express  direction 
given,  where  the  intended  *^  greatest  festival  of  Zeus  "  was  to 
be  sought — whether  in  Attica  or  elsewhere — and  that  the 
public  festival  of  the  Diasia,  celebrated  periodically  and  sol- 
emnly in  the  neighborhood  of  Athens,  was  also  denominated 
the  *' greatest  festival  of  Zeus  Meilchius."  Probably  no 
such  exegetical  scruples  presented  themselves  to  any  one, 
until  after  the  miserable  faikire  of  the  conspiracy ;  least  of 
all  to  Cylon  himself,  who,  at  the  recurrence  of  the  next 
ensuing  Olympic  games,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  force, 
partly  furnished  by  Theagenes,  partly  composed  of  his 
friends  at  home,  and  took  sudden  possession  of  the  sacred 
rock  of  Athens.  But  the  attempt  excited  general  indigna- 
tion among  the  Athenian  people,  who  crowded  in  from  the 
country  to  assist  the  archons  and  prytanes  in  putting  it 
down.  Cylon  and  his  companions  were  blockaded  in  the 
Acropolis,  where  they  soon  found  themselves  in  straits  for 
want  of  water  and  provisions;  and  though  many  of  the 
Athenians  went  back  to  their  homes,  a  sufficient  besieging 
force  was  left  to  reduce  the  conspirators  to  the  last  extremity. 
After  Cylon  himself  had  escaped  by  stealth,  and  several  of 
his  companions  had  died  of  hunger,  the  remainder,  renounc- 
ing all  hope  of  defence,  sat  down  as  suppliants  at  the  altar. 
The  archon  Megacles,  on  regaining  the  citadel,  found  these 
suppliants  on  the  point  of  expiring  with  hunger  on  the  sacred 
ground,  and  to  prevent  such  a  pollution,  engaged  them  to 
quit  the  spot  by  a  promise  of  sparing  their  lives.  No  sooner, 
however,  had  they  been  removed  into  profane  ground  than 


106  READiKGS    IK     GKEEK    HISTORY. 

the  promise  was  violated  and  they  were  put  to  death  ;  some 
even,  who,  seeing  the  fate  with  which  they  were  menaced, 
contrived  to  throw  themselves  upon  the  altar  of  the  Eumen- 
ides,  near  the  Areopagus,  received  their  death-wounds  in 
spite  of  that  inviolable  protection. — Grote. 

Legislation  of  Solon. — The  great  misery  of  the  common 
people  was  debt.  The  farmers  had  borrowed  money  at  very 
high  interest  from  the  wealthy,  giving  their  farms  in  pledge 
for  the  payment  of  the  debt.  At  the  boundaries  of  every 
farm  so  mortgaged  pillars  were  set  up  as  a  witness,  with  the 
amount  of  the  debt  and  the  name  of  th-e  lender  cut  upon 
them.  The  debt  grew  greater  and  greater  every  year  from 
the  heavy  interest;  the  farmer  lost  all  hope  of  ever  being 
able  to  pay,  and  was  now  only  like  a  laborer  on  the  farm 
which  had  once  been  really  his  own.  The  debtor  who  had 
no  farm  and  could  not  pay  his  debt  was  in  still  worse  case, 
for  he  became  the  actual  slave  of  his  creditor,  and  might  be 
sold.  Thus  the  free  farmers,  the  Geomori,  were  disappear- 
ing altogether.  Some  were  sold  altogether.  Some  were  sold 
abroad  as  slaves,  others  were  working  at  home  as  serfs,  or 
struggling  in  miserable  poverty.  To  save  the  state  Solon 
was  compelled  to  take  very  strong  measures.  He  ordered 
that  the  common  silver  coins,  called  drachmcB,  should  be 
made  of  lighter  weight,  so  that  100  new  ones  should  be 
worth  only  73  old  ones,  and  that  the  new  drachmae  should 
be  accepted  as  if  they  were  equal  to  the  old  ones  in  payment 
of  debts.  Thus,  a  man  who  owed  100  old  drachmae  would  pay 
it  by  100  new  drachmae,  which  were  worth  only  73  old  ones, 
and  would  really  have  his  debt  reduced  by  27.  Farmers 
who  owed  money  to  the  state  were  freed  from  debt  alto- 
gether, and  made  a  fresh  start.  Many  persons  who  had  been 
sold  abroad  as  slaves  were  brought  back  and  set  free ;  and 


HEADIKOS    IIT    OflEEK     HISTORY.  107 

Solon  ordered  that  henceforth  no  Athenian  should  be  made 
the  slave  of  another  for  debt. 

Solon  was  also  given  authority  to  make  a  new  constitu- 
tion and  new  laws  for  the  state.  Till  now  the  noble  clans 
had  been  everything.  It  was  Solon  who  first  made  Athens  a 
state  in  which  a  man  might  take  a  part  as  citizen  without 
belonging  to  one  of  these  clans.  The  ancient  Homeric  as- 
sembly of  all  the  people  had  perhaps  never  died  out  in 
Athens,  but  it  had  never  gained  any  authority.  Solon  first 
made  the  assembly  a  real  part  of  the  state.  He  secured  to 
it  the  election  of  the  archons,  the  right  of  passing  laios,  and 
the  right  of  calling  magistrates  to  account  for  what  they  had 
done  while  in  office.  Every  free-born  native  of  Attica  had  a 
vote  in  the  assembly,  whether  he  belonged  to  one  of  the  clans 
or  not.  But  Solon  did  not  intend  that  any  one  who  chose 
should  get  up  in  the  assembly  and  propose  a  law  :  he  estab- 
lished a  council  of  400  to  prepare  the  business  that  was  to 
come  before  the  assembly,  and  nothing  was  to  be  proposed 
in  the  assembly  that  had  not  been  agreed  to  by  the  council. 
The  councillors  were  to  be  elected  yearly  by  the  people. 

Solon  also  made  a  new  division  of  the  citizens  distinct 
from  the  old  clan  divisions.  He  divided  all  the  natives  of 
Attica  into  four  classes,  according  to  the  amount  of  land 
which  they  possessed.  To  the  richer  classes  he  gave  the 
greatest  share  in  the  government,  but  he  also  required  them 
to  pay  heavier  taxes,  and  to  do  more  service  for  the  state. 
Men  of  the  first  or  richest  class  alone  could  hold  the 
archonship;  and  thus  the  rich  Eupatridae,  who  best  under- 
stood government,  would  still  be  at  the  head  of  the  state. 
The  lowest  class  could  not  be  members  of  the  council  or  hold 
any  ofiice ;  they  had  only  their  votes  in  the  assembly.  They 
paid  no  taxes ;  and,  when  they  were  called  out  as  soldiers, 
they  had  not  to  find  themselves  arms,  whereas  the  first  three 


108  HEADINGS    ii^^    GREEK    HISTORY. 

classes  had  to  provide  themselves  with  a  full  suit  of  armor, 
or  to  serve  as  cavalrymen  on  horses  of  their  own.  A  con- 
stitution which,  like  Solon's,  gives  power  in  proportion  to 
wealth,  is  called  a  Timocracy.  Hitherto  birth  alone  could 
give  a  man  power  in  Athens ;  now  any  Athenian  who 
possessed  a  good  estate  might  hold  the  highest  offices. — 
Fyffe. 

Last  Days  of  Solon. — Pisistratus. — Such  in  the  main 
seems  to  have  been  the  great  work  of  Solon.  Solon  himself 
scarcely  more  than  laid  the  foundations ;  and  it  is  a  common 
error  to  ascribe  to  him  developments  of  the  constitution 
belonging  to  a  time  later  even  than  that  of  Clisthenes. 
The  members  of  the  fourth  and  by  far  the  larger  class  of 
citizens  could  have  no  further  influence  on  the  conduct  of 
afiairs  than  by  the  check,  probably  not  always  very  effectual, 
which  they  exercised  by  electing  the  archons  and  examining 
them  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Over  the  sequel  of  the  career  of  Solon  the  mists  of  oral 
tradition  have  gathered  thickly.  His  work  as  legislator  was 
done  ;  but  there  remained  the  fear  that  others  might  destroy 
it,  or  that  he  might  be  induced  to  impair  it  himself.  He 
therefore  bound  the  Athenians,  we  are  told,  by  solemn  oaths 
that  for  ten  years,  or  as  some  say,  for  a  hundred  years,  they 
would  suffer  no  change  to  be  made  in  his  laws,  and  then,  to 
make  it  impossible  that  this  change  should  come  from  him- 
self, he  departed  on  the  long  pilgrimage  which  is  associated 
with  the  names  of  other  legislators  as  great  as  himself,  though 
less  historical.  That  he  visited  Egypt  and  Cyprus  is  proved 
by  his  own  words ;  but  the  time  of  the  visit  is  undetermined. 

The  return  of  Solon  to  Athens  was  not  to  be  followed  by 
new  reforms  for  the  benefit  of  his  countrymen.  The  tide 
had  turned.    In  the  struggle  which  ensued,  Solon,  it  is  said, 


READINGS    l^    GREEK    HISTORY.  109 

foresaw  that  Pisistratus  must  be  the  conqueror;  but  he 
strove  in  vain  to  rouse  the  Athenians  to  combine  against  the 
tyranny  with  which  they  were  threatened.  Pisistratus,  as  the 
story  goes,  did  him  no  harm ;  and  the  man  who  had  done 
more  than  any  who  had  gone  before  him  to  make  his  country 
free,  died  in  peace,  full  of  years,  and  with  a  fame  which  is 
the  purer  for  the  unselfishness  which  refused  to  employ  for 
his  own  exaltation  opportunities  greater  than  any  which  fell 
to  the  lot  even  of  Pisistratus  himself. 

The  success  of  Pisistratus  is  of  itself  sufficient  evidence  of 
the  slow  growth  of  the  democratic  spirit  at  Athens.  He 
appeared,  we  are  told,  as  the  champion  of  the  Hypera- 
krians,  or  men  of  the  hills,  declaring  that  he  had  narrowly 
escaped  from  the  hands  of  his  enemies  who  had  fallen 
upon  him  in  the  country.  Pointing  to  the  wounds,  which 
he  had  inflicted  on  himself  and  his  mules,  as  attesting  the 
truth  of  his  tale,  he  prayed  the  people  to  grant  him  a  body- 
guard to  protect  him  against  the  weapons  of  the  rival  fac- 
tions; and  the  disguise  was  finally  thrown  off  when,  with 
their  help,  Pisistratus  seized  the  Acropolis,  and  Megacles 
with  the  Alcmgeonidae,  fled  from  the  city.  Whatever 
may  be  the  value  of  these  details,  there  is  no  reason  to 
question  the  general  statement  of  Herodotus  that  having 
thus  made  himself  master  of  Athens,  Pisistratus  ruled 
wisely  and  well  without  introducing  a  single  constitutional 
change. 

But  he  owed  his  power  to  the  divisions  among  the  people, 
and  a  coalition  of  the  Pediaian  and  Paralian  factions — in 
other  words,  of  the  men  belonging  to  the  plains  and  the  sea- 
coast — was  at  once  followed  by  his  expulsion.  But  this  suc- 
cess served  only  to  renew  and  whet  the  strife  of  these  parties; 
and  Megacles,  the  head  of  the  Paralians,  offered  to  restore 
the  exiled  tyrant  on  the  condition  that  the  latter  should 


110  READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

marry  the  daughter  of  the  Alcraaeonid  chief.  The  terms 
were  accepted ;  and  to  insure  the  favor  and  assent  of  the 
people,  the  conspirators,  it  is  said,  obtained  the  services  of  a 
tall  and  beautiful  woman  of  the  Paionian  tribe,  whom  they 
placed  in  full  armor  on  a  chariot,  and  then  made  proclama- 
tion to  the  citizens  that  they  should  welcome  Pisistratus, 
whom  Athen^  herself  was  bringing  to  her  own  Acropolis. 
Hastening  to  the  scene,  they  saw  a  majestic  woman,  about 
six  feet  high,  and,  taking  her  at  once  to  be  the  virgin  god- 
dess, gave  her  worship  and  received  the  despot. 

But  the  reconciliation  of  Megacles  with  Lycurgus,  the 
head  of  the  so-called  Pediaian  faction,  led  to  the  second  ex- 
pulsion of  the  tyrant,  who,  it  is  said,  spent  the  next  ten  years 
chiefly  in  Eretria,  aiding  Lygdamis  to  establish  his  despotism 
in  Naxos,  and  in  some  way  or  other  helping  Thebes  and  other 
cities. 

The  story  of  this  restoration  implies  a  singular  indifference 
on  the  part  of  the  Athenians.  The  invader  occupied  Mara- 
thon without  opposition  ;  and  when,  on  his  moving  from 
that  place,  the  Athenians  advanced  against  him,  they  allowed 
him  to  fall  upon  them  while  some  were  dicing  and  others 
sleeping  after  their  morning  meal.  The  sons  of  the  tyrant 
rode  toward  Athens,  and  telling  the  citizens  what  had  hap- 
pened, bade  them  go  home.  The  order  was  placidly  obeyed, 
and  for  the  third  time  Pisistratus  became  master  of  the 
Acropolis.  He  died  tyrant  of  Athens  three  and  thirty  years, 
it  is  said,  after  the  time  of  his  first  usurpation.— Cox. 

Hippias  and  Hipparchus.— The  sons  of  Pisistratus, 
Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  followed,  we  are  told,  the  example 
of  sobriety  and  moderation  set  by  their  father.  But  a  per- 
sonal wrong  done  by  Hipparchus  led,  it  is  said,  to  a  con- 
spiracy by  which  Aristogiton  and  his  friend  Harmodius  hoped 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  Ill 

to  overthrow  their  despotism.  These  men,  with  a  few  par- 
tisans, determined  to  await  the  greater  Panathenaic  festival, 
being  sure  that  on  seeing  the  blow  struck  the  main  body  of 
the  citizens  would  hasten  to  join  them.  When  the  day 
came,  and  the  conspirators  drew  near  to  their  work,  they 
were  astonished  to  see  one  of  their  number  talking  familiarly 
with  Hippias,  and  then,  supposing  that  their  design  was 
betrayed,  determined  at  least  the  man  who  had  injured  them 
should  die.  They  found  Hipparchus  near  the  temple  of  the 
daughters  of  Leos,  and  there  they  killed  him.  Aristogiton 
for  the  moment  escaped ;  but  Harmodius  was  slain  on  the 
spot  by  the  guards  of  the  murdered  man.  Tidings  of  the 
disaster  were  soon  brought  to  Hippias,  who  was  at  the  Cera- 
micus.  With  great  presence  of  mind,  he  simply  commanded 
the  hoplites,  who  witn  shields  and  spears  were  to  take  part 
in  the  procession,  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  go  to  a  certain 
spot.  The  command  was  obeyed  under  the  notion  that 
their  general  had  something  to  say  to  them  ;  and  the  arms 
being  seized  by  the  mercenaries,  all  citizens  found  with 
daggers  were  set  aside  as  sharing  in  the  conspiracy. 

The  death  of  Hipparchus,  and  the  circumstances  which 
led  to  it,  warned  Hippias  that  yet  more  disasters  might  be  in 
store  for  him,  and  that  he  would  do  well  to  provide  betimes 
against  the  evil  day.  His  thoughts  turned  to  the  Persian 
king,  whose  power,  after  the  fall  of  the  Lydian  monarchy, 
had  been  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont,  and  to 
whom  the  Athenian  settlement  at  Sigeion  had  thus  become 
tributary.  In  Sigeion,  then,  he  thought  that  he  might  have 
a  safe  refuge,  and  in  the  Lampsacene  despot  he  found  a 
friend  through  whom  he  gained  personal  access  to  the 
Persian  king. 

While  Hippias  was  thus  guarding  himself  against  possible 
disasters,  the  intrigues  of  the  Alcmaeonids  were  preparing 


112  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

the  way  for  the  expulsion  which  he  dreaded.  The  Amphic- 
tyonic  Council  had  determined  that  the  temple  of  Delphi, 
which  had  been  accidentally  burned,  should  be  restored  at 
the  cost  of  three  hundred  talents — about  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  thousand  pounds  of  our  money — one-fourth  portion 
of  this  to  be  contributed  by  the  Delphians  themselves. 
When  at  length  the  money  was  gathered  together,  the 
Alcmaeonids  who  took  the  contract  executed  the  work  with 
greater  sumptuousness  than  the  contract  specified,  and  thus 
won  for  themselves  the  gratitude  of  the  Delphians,  which 
was  heightened  by  further  gifts,  bestowed  on  the  condition 
that  to  all  Spartans  who  might  consult  the  oracle  the  answer 
should  be  returned  by  the  Pythia,  or  priestess,  "Athens 
must  be  set  free."  Wearied  out  by  the  repetition  of  this 
command,  the  Spartans  sent  an  army  which  landed  at 
Phaleron,  only  to  be  defeated  by  Hippias,  w^ho  had  been 
forewarned  of  their  coming. 

The  attempt  was,  however,  repeated  on  a  larger  scale 
under  the  Spartan  king  Cleomenes,  who  shut  up  Hippias 
within  the  Pelasgic  wall.  But  he  had  no  idea  of  a  perma- 
nent blockade,  and  the  besieged  were  well  provided  with 
food.  A  few  days  more  would  have  seen  the  departure  of 
the  Spartan  force,  when  an  accident  brought  the  matter  to 
an  issue.  The  children  of  Hippias  were  taken  in  the  attempt 
to  smuggle  them  out  of  the  country.  The  tables  were 
effectually  turned,  and  for  the  recovery  of  his  children 
Hippias  agreed  to  leave  Attica  within  five  days.  Thus, 
after  the  lapse  of  fifty  years  from  the  establishment  of  the 
first  tyranny  of  Pisistratus,  the  last  despot  of  his  house  be- 
took himself  to  the  refuge  which  he  had  prepared  on  the 
banks  of  the  Scamander ;  and  a  pillar  on  the  Acropolis  set 
forth,  for  the  execration  of  future  ages,  the  evil  deeds  of  the 
dynasty  and  the  names  of  all  its  members. — Cox. 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  113 

Battle  of  Marathon. — The  Persians  crossed  the  Euripus, 
and  landed  on  the  plain  of  Marathon,  twenty-two  miles 
from  Athens.  The  ruin  of  the  Athenians  was  certain  if  they 
waited  for  their  town  to  be  besieged  ;  nothing  but  a  victory 
in  the  field  could  save  them  from  slaughter  and  captivity. 
They  marched  out,  9,000  heavy  armed  men  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Polemarch  and  the  ten  Strategi,  and  encamped 
on  the  hills  overlooking  the  plain  of  Marathon.  The  army 
of  the  Persians  that  had  wrought  such  ruin  upon  Ionia — the 
army  which  no  Greeks  had  ever  resisted  with  success — lay 
below  them  on  the  plain  between  the  mountains  and  the 
sea.  Sparta  had  promised  help,  but  delayed  sending  it,  and 
the  Athenians  were  alone  in  their  desperate  peril.  At  this 
moment  the  Httle  army  of  the  citizens  of  Plataea,  only  a 
thousand  in  all,  who  had  lately  had  protection  given  them 
by  the  Athenians,  came  to  share  their  fate.  Such  courage 
and  resolution  filled  the  Athenians  with  admiration,  and 
were  never  forgotten.  Still  the  whole  number  of  the  army 
was  only  10,000 ;  and  five  of  the  generals  thought  that  they 
ought  to  wait  till  help  came  from  Sparta.  The  leader  of  the 
other  five  was  Miltiades,  who,  after  escaping  from  the  Per- 
sians, had  been  elected  Strategus  in  Athens.  Miltiades 
knew  that  there  were  traitors  among  the  citizens,  and  feared 
that  they  would  break  up  the  army  if  fighting  were  de- 
layed. Therefore,  though  the  Persians  were  ten  times  as 
numerous,  he  urged  immediate  battle,  and  when  the  votes 
of  the  ten  Strategi  were  equally  divided,  the  Polemarch 
Callimachus  gave  his  casting  vote  for  battle.  The  generals 
gave  up  each  his  own  day's  command  to  Miltiades;  and 
Miltiades,  when  the  right  time  had  come,  drew  up  the  army 
in  line  for  battle.  After  the  generals  had  addressed  their 
tribesman  the  battle  signal  was  given,  and  the  whole  army, 
raising  the  battle-cry,  charged  down  the  hill  upon  the  Per- 


114  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

sians.  In  the  struggle  the  centre  of  the  Greek  line  was 
driven  back,  but  the  two  ends  carried  everything  before 
them,  and  turned  and  attacked  the  Persians  in  the  center. 
The  Persians  gave  way,  and  fled  for  refuge  to  their  ships,  or 
were  driven  into  the  marshes  by  the  shore.  Six  thousand 
Persians  and  no  more  than  one  hundred  and  ninety-two 
Athenians  fell  in  the  battle.  Either  before  or  immediately 
after  the  battle  a  bright  shield  was  seen  raised  on  a  mountain 
by  Athenian  traitors  as  a  signal  to  the  Persians  that  there 
were  no  troops  in  the  city.  Miltiades  instantly  marched  back 
to  Athens.  Soon  after  he  reached  it  the  Persian  fleet  ap- 
proached, expecting  to  find  Athens  without  troops.  But 
when  they  saw  the  men  who  had  just  fought  at  Marathon 
drawn  up  on  the  beach  ready  to  fight  them  again,  they 
sailed  away,  and  the  whole  armament  returned  to  Asia. 

The  battle  of  Marathon  was  glorious  to  Athens  and 
Plataea ;  and  though  the  number  of  Greeks  who  fought  and 
died  in  it  was  small,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  battles 
in  all  history;  for,  had  it  not  been  won,  Athens  must  have 
been  captured  by  Persia ;  and  the  rest  of  Greece  would  prob- 
ably have  submitted.  Greece  would  have  become  a  Persian 
province;  and  the  history  of  Europe,  instead  of  being  the 
history  of  free  and  progressing  nations,  might  have  been 
like  the  history  of  Asia, — a  history  of  oppressors  and  their 
slaves. — ^Fyffe. 

Battle  of  Thermopylee. — Thermopylae  was  a  narrow 
pass,  of  twenty-five  feet  broad,  between  Thessaly  and  Phocis, 
defended  by  the  remains  of  a  wall,  with  gates  to  it,  formerly 
built  by  the  Phocians,  to  secure  them  against  the  incursions 

of  their  neighboring  enemy The  command  of  this 

important  pass  was  given  to  Leonidas,  one  of  the  kings  of 
Sparta,  who  led  thither  a  body  of  six  thousand  men.     Of 


READIJs'GS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  115 

these,  three  luindred  were  Spartans ;  the  rest  consisting  of 
Boeotians,  Corinthians,  Phocians,  and  Arcadians.  Each  of 
these  had  particular  commanders  of  their  own>  but  Leonidas 
had  conduct  of  the  whole. 

Xerxes,  in  the  meantime,  approached  with  his  numerous 
army,  flushed  with  success  and  confident  of  victory.  His 
camp  exhibited  all  the  marks  of  Eastern  magnificence  and 
Asiatic  luxur/.  He  expected  to  meet  no  obstruction  on  his 
w^ay  to  Greece  ;  he  led  on  his  forces,  rather  to  terrify  the 
enemy,  than  to  fight  them ;  great,  therefore,  was  his  surprise, 
to  find  that  a  few  desperate  men  were  determined  to  dispute 
his  passage.  He,  himself,  took  a  view  of  their  camp  and  en- 
trenchments. The  Lacedaemonians  were,  some  of  them, 
calmly  amusing  themselves  with  military  exercises,  others 
were  combing  their  long  hair.  He  inquired  the  reason  of 
this  conduct,  and  was  informed  that  it  was  the  Spartan 
manner  of  preparing  themselves  for  battle.  Still,  however, 
entertaining  some  hopes  of  their  flight,  he  waited  four  days 
to  give  them  time  to  reflect  on  tlie  greatness  of  their  danger, 
but  they  still  continued  gay  and  unconcerned,  as  men  who 
regarded  death  as  the  end  of  labor.  He  sent  to  them,  to  in- 
timate that  they  should  deliver  up  their  arms.  Leonidas, 
with  truly  Spartan  contempt,  desired  him  to  come  and  take 
them.  He  offered,  if  they  would  lay  down  their  arms,  to  re- 
ceive them  as  friends,  and  to  give  them  a  country  much 
larger  and  better  than  that  for  which  they  fought.  No 
country,  they  replied,  was  worth  acceptance,  unless  won  by 
virtue ;  and  that,  for  their  arms,  they  should  want  them, 
whether  as  his  friends  or  enemies.  Upon  this,  the  monarch 
addressed  himself  to  Demaratus,  asking,  if  these  desperate 
men  could  expect  to  outrun  his  horses  ?  Demaratus  answered, 
that  they  would  fight  to  the  last,  and  not  a  man  of  them 
would  survive  his  country's  freedom.    Some  men  were  heard 


116  KEADII^GS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

to  say,  that  the  Persians  were  so  numerous  that  their  darts 
would  darken  the  sun.  Diences,  a  Spartan,  replied,  "  Then 
we  shall  fight  in  the  shade." 

Xerxes,  thus  treated  with  contempt,  at  length  ordered  a 
body  of  Medes  to  advance ;  desiring  such  as  had  lost  any  of 
their  relations  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  to  take  their  re- 
venge. Accordingly,  they  began  the  onset,  but  were  re- 
pulsed with  great  loss.  The  number  of  the  assailants  only 
served  to  increase  their  confusion  ;  and  it  now  began  to 
appear,  that  Xerxes  had  many  followers,  but  few  soldiers. 

These  forces  being  routed  by  the  Grecian  troops,  the  Per- 
sian immortal  band  was  brought  up,  consisting  of  ten  thou- 
sand men.  But  these  were  as  unsuccessful  as  the  former. 
The  charge  was  renewed  the  next  day  ;  Xerxes  endeavoring 
to  inspire  his  troops  with  the  promises  of  reward,  since  he 
"found  they  were  dead  to  the  sense  of  shame.  But  though 
their  charge  was  violent,  it  was  unsupported;  and  the  Greeks, 
standing  closely  connected  in  a  body,  withstood  the  shock, 
and  filled  the  way  with  Persian  carcases. 

During  these  unsuccessful  assaults,  Xerxes  was  a  specta- 
tor, sitting  upon  his  throne,  placed  upon  an  eminence,  and 
directing  the  order  of  battle  ;  impetuous  in  his  pride  and 
resentment,  and  now  and  then  seen  to  leap  from  his  seat, 
when  he  beheld  his  troops  in  confusion,  or  ofiering  to  give 
way. 

Thus  did  the  Greeks  keep  their  ground  for  two  days,  and 
no  power  on  earth  seemed  capable  of  removing  them  from 
their  advantageous  station.  Xerxes,  out  of  all  hopes  of  being 
able  to  force  a  passage,  appeared  under  the  greatest  conster- 
nation ;  but  he  was  relieved  from  his  embarrassment,  by  the 
appearance  of  Ephialtes,  a  Malian,  who  had  deserted  from  the 
enemy,  and  undertook  to  show  his  troops  a  secret  path  that 
Jed  through  the  defiles  of  thQ  mountains,  and  through  which 


headiitgs   t^   GREEK    History.         117 

a  body  of  forces  might  be  conducted,  to  fall  upon  the  Grecians 
in  the  rear. 

He  quickly,  therefore,  dispatched  a  body  of  twenty  thou- 
sand men  thither,  who,  marching  all  night,  arrived,  at  the 
break  of  day,  at  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  that  advantageous  post. 

The  Greeks  were  soon  apprised  of  this  misfortune ;  and 
Leonidas,  seeing  that  his  post  was  no  longer  tenable,  advised 
the  troops  of  his  allies  to  retire,  and  reserve  themselves  for 
better  times,  and  the  future  safety  of  Greece.  As  for  himself 
and  his  fellow-Spartans,  they  were  obliged,  by  their  laws,  not 
to  fly ;  that  he  owed  a  life  to  his  country,  and  that  it  was 
now  his  duty  to  fall  in  its  defence. 

Thus,  having  dismissed  all  but  his^^hree  hundred  Spartans, 
with  some  Thespians  and  Thebans,  in  all  not  a  thousand 
men,  he  exhorted  his  followers,  in  the  most  cheerful  manner, 
to  prepare  for  death.  "  Come,  my  fellow-soldiers,"  says  he, 
^'  lei;  us  dine  cheerfully  here,  for  to-night  we  shall  sup  tvith 
Pluto." — Goldsmith. 

Death  of  Leonidas.— Xerxes  delayed  his  attack  till  the 
middle  of  the  day,  when  it  was  expected  that  the  detachment 
sent  across  the  mountain  would  arrive  at  the  rear  of  the  pass. 
But  Leonidas  and  his  comrades,  only  anxious  to  sell  their 
lives  as  dearly  as  possible,  did  not  wait  to  receive  the  attack 
of  the  Persians,  but  advanced  into  the  open  space  in  front  of 
the  pass,  and  charged  the  enemy  with  desperate  valor.  Num- 
bers of  the  Persians  were  slain ;  many  were  driven  into  the 
neighboring  sea,  and  others  were  trampled  to  death  by  the 
vast  host  behind  them.  As  long  as  the  Greeks  could  main- 
tain their  ranks  they  repelled  every  attack ;  but  when  their 
spears  were  broken,  and  they  had  only  their  swords  left,  the" 
enemy  began  to  press  in  between  them.     Leonidas  was  one 


118  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

of  the  first  that  fell,  and  around  his  body  the  battle  raged 
fiercer  than  ever.  The  Persians  n>ade  the  greatest  efforts  to 
obtain  possession  of  it ;  but  four  times  they  were  driven 
back  by  the  Greeks  with  great  slaughter.  At  length, 
thinned  in  numbers  and  exhausted  by  fatigue  and  wounds, 
this  noble  band  retired  within  the  pass  and  seated  them- 
selves on  a  hillock.  Meanwhile,  the  Persian  detachment 
which  had  been  sent  across  the  mountains,  began  to  enter 
the  pass  from  the  south.  The  Spartan  heroes  were  now 
surrounded  on  every  side,  overwhelmed  with  a  shower  of 
missiles,  and  killed  to  a  man. 

On  the  hillock,  where  the  Greeks  made  their  last  stand,  a 
marble  lion  was  set  up  in  honor  of  Leonidas.  Another 
monument,  erected  near^^he  spot,  contained  the  memorable 
inscription : 

*'  Go,  tell  the  Spartans,  thou  that  passest  by, 
That  here  obedient  to  tlieir  laws  we  lie." 

Cox. 

The  Battle  of  Salamis. — The  day  of  the  battle  broke, 
the  20th  of  September,  b.  c.  480;  it  was  a  holy  day  for 
Athens,  for  in  the  evening  commenced  the  day  of  lacchus, 
on  which  the  figure  of  the  god  was  borne  in  a  grand  festive 
procession  to  Eleusis,  and  the  torches  burned  brightly 
around  the  sacred  bay.  While  Themistocles  was  encourag- 
ing his  fellow-citizens  for  the  decisive  fight,  there  arrived 
from  ^gina  the  vessels  with  the  sacred  figures  of  the 
w^acidae.  An  ardent  desire  for  battle  spread  through  the 
Greek  ranks,  and  when  they  first  came  in  view  of  the  Per- 
sians, these,  contrary  to  their  expectation,  beheld  a  naval- 
armament  ready  for  the  fight,  and  heard  the  rocks  of  the 
island  re-echo  the  sound  of  their  trumpets  and  martial' 
strains. 


BEADING  S     IK     GREEK     HISTORY.  119 

In  the  rear  of  the  Persian  fleet,  on  the  projection  of  Mount 
^oraleos,  was  erected  the  silver-footed  throne  of  the  Great 
King  (Xerxes).  There  he  sat  in  the  midst  of  his  troops, 
surrounded  by  councillors  and  scribes,  near  enough  to  over- 
look the  waters,  within  the  narrow  limits  of  which  hundreds 
of  thousands  were  crowded  together  for  battle,  and  ready  to 
dispense  on  the  spot  rich  rewards  or  the  most  fearful  punish- 
ment. It  was  the  Persians  who,  with  great  vehemence, 
made  the  first  general  attack.  The  Hellenes  retreated  upon 
Salamis,  but  in  perfect  order,  the  prows  of  their  vessels 
remaining  turned  towards  the  enemy.  Then  they  again 
slowly  advanced,  the  Athenians  and  -^ginetans  in  the 
van. 

As  in  the  Homeric  battles,  the  fight  began  with  single 
assaults ;  bold  commanders  dared  to  advance  beyond  the 
line,  and  drew  the  rest  into  the  hand-to-hand  contest.  Thus 
the  battle  became  general,  and  the  advantages  on  the  side 
of  the  Greeks  manifested  themselves  more  and  more  clearly. 
For  the  Barbarians,  who  entirely  depended  on  their  num- 
bers, fought  without  any  systematic  plan  or  order,  while  the 
Hellenes,  particularly  the  ^ginetans  and  Athenians,  held 
together  in  squadrons.  The  vessels  of  the  Barbarians  were 
floating  houses  filled  with  troops  ;  the  Greeks  used  their 
vessels  themselves  as  a  weapon  of  offence;  with  so  elastic  an 
impulse  were  they  able  to  assault  the  foe.  Their  courage 
rose  with  every  collision  which  sunk  a  hostile  vessel,  with 
every  successive  sweep  which  broke  the  oars  of  their  adver- 
saries. Towards  noon  the  air  and  sea  became  disturbed, 
and  the  troubles  of  the  enemy  increased ;  drawn  up  in  three 
lines  their  heavy  vessels  were  unable  to  move  freely,  and 
those  which  had  been  damaged  were  unable  to  retreat  so  as 
to  make  room  for  others  to  advance.  The  fright  of  the 
Asiatics  was  heightened  by  their,  seeing  inevitable  death  in 


120  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

the  waters  before  them;  whereas  the  Greeks  found  more 
and  more  advantage  in  their  agility  in  hand-to-hand  fighting, 
in  leaping  and  swimming,  as  the  pressure  of  the  throng 
increased.  Ariabignes,  the  admiral  and  brother  of  the  king, 
and  other  men  of  eminence,  fell  in  the  fight ;  the  fleet  lost 
its  coherence,  and  the  ships  began,  in  order  to  escape  from 
the  universal  destruction,  to  retreat  in  the  direction  of  the 
Phalerus.  But  even  in  their  retreat  ruin  awaited  them  in  a 
new  form.  For  while  the  Athenians  pursued  the  fugitives, 
a  squadron  of  the  ^ginetans  was  cruising  outside,  which 
attacked  them  in  front  and  inflicted  great  damage  upon 
them. 

Under  these  circumstances  there  was  no  time  to  take  on 
board  the  troops  which  had  been  landed  on  Psyttalea  to 
close  this  outlet  of  the  bay  against  the  Greeks.  Aristides 
availed  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  take  an  active  part  in 
the  battle.  He  rapidly  collected  a  band  of  armed  citizens 
who  were  viewing  the  naval  battle  as  spectators  from 
Salamis,  and  with  these  landed  on  the  island,  whose  low 
bushes  and  branches  ofiered  no  protection  to  the  crowded 
masses  of  the  enemy,  the  whole  of  whom — a  division  of 
chosen  Persians — fell  by  the  swords  of  the  Athenians.  Two 
hours  after  sunset  the  moon  rose,  to  favor  the  last  stage  of 
the  pursuit,  and  light  up  for  the  Greeks  the  battle-field  of 
the  bay  of  Salamis,  abandoned  by  the  Persians  and  densely 
covered  with  fragments  of  vessels  and  corpses.  In  gratitude 
the  memorial  festival  of  the  victory  was  connected  with  that 
of  the  moon-goddess  Artemis  Munychia. — Curtius. 

Themistocles. — In  the  description  of  Themistocles, 
which  we  have  the  advantage  of  finding  briefly  sketched  by 
Thucydides,  the  circumstance  most  emphatically  brought 
out  is,  his  immense  force  of  spontaneous  invention  and 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  131 

apprehension,  without  any  previous  aid  either  from  teaching 
or  gradual  practice.  The  might  of  unassisted  nature  was 
never  so  strikingly  exhibited  as  in  him.  He  conceived  the 
complications  of  a  present  embarrassment,  and  divined  the 
chances  of  a  mysterious  future  with  equal  sagacity  and  equal 
quickness.  The  right  expedient  seemed  to  flash  upon  his 
mind  extempore,  even  in  the  most  perplexing  contingencies, 
without  the  least  necessity  for  premeditation.  He  was  not 
less  distinguished  for  daring  and  recourse  in  action;  when 
engaged  on  any  joint  affairs  his  superior  competence  marked 
him  out  as  the  leader  for  others  to  follow,  and  no  business, 
however  foreign  to  his  experience,  ever  took  him  by  surprise 
or  came  wholly  amiss  to  him.  Such  is  the  remarkable 
picture  which  Thucydides  draws  of  a  countryman-  whose 
death  nearly  coincided  in  time  with  his  own  birth.  The 
untutored  readiness  and  universality  of  Themistocles  prob- 
ably formed  in  his  mind  a  contrast  to  the  more  elaborate 
discipline  and  careful  preliminary  study  with  which  the 
statesmen  of  his  own  day — and  Pericles  especially,  the 
greatest  of  them — approached  the  consideration  and  discus- 
sion of  public  affairs.  Themistocles  had  received  no  teach- 
ing from  philosophers,  sophist,  and  rhetors,  who  were  the 
instructors  of  well-born  youth  in  the  days  of  Thucydides, 
and  whom  Aristophanes,  the  contemporary  of  the  latter,  so 
unmercifully  derides,  treating  such  instruction  as  worse  than 
nothing,  and  extolling  in  comparison  with  it  the  unlettered 
courage,  with  mere  gymnastic  accomplishments,  of  the 
victors  at  Marathon.  There  is  no  evidence  in  the  mind  of 
Thucydides  of  any  such  undue  contempt  towards  his  own 
age.  The  same  terms  of  contrast  are  tacitly  present  to  his 
mind,  but  he  seems  to  treat  the  great  capacity  of  Themis- 
tocles as  the  more  a  matter  of  wonder,  since  it  sprung  up 
without  that  preliminary  cultivation  which  had  gone  to  the 
making  of  Pericles. 


122  EEADIKGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY. 

The  general  character  given  by  Plutarch,  though  many  of 
his  anecdotes  are  both  trifling  and  apocryphal,  is  quite  con- 
sistent with  the  brief  sketch  just  cited  from  Thucydides. 
Themistocles  had  an  unbounded  passion,  not  merely  for 
glory,  insomuch  that  the  laurels  of  Miltiades  acquired  at 
Marathon  deprived  him  of  rest,  but  also  for  display  of  every 
kind.  He  was  eager  to  vie  with  men  richer  than  himself  in 
showy  exhibition — one  great  source,  though  not  the  only 
source,  of  popularity  at  Athens ;  nor  was  he  at  all  scrupulous 
in  procuring  the  means  of  doing  so.  Besides  being  assidu- 
ous in  attendance  at  the  Ecclesia  and  the  Dicastery,  he  knew 
most  of  the  citizens  by  name,  and  was  always  ready  with 
advice  to  them  in  their  private  affairs.  Moreover  he  pos- 
sessed all  the  tactics  of  an  expert  party-man  in  conciliating 
political  friends  and  in  defeating  political  enemies.  And 
though  he  was  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  sincerely  bent 
upon  the  upholding  and  aggrandizement  of  his  country,  and 
was  on  some  most  critical  occasions  of  unspeakable  value  to 
it,  yet  on  the  whole  his  morality  was  as  reckless  as  his  intel- 
ligence was  eminent.  He  will  be  found  grossly  corrupt  in 
the  exercise  of  power,  and  employing  tortuous  means,  some- 
times indeed  for  ends  in  themselves  honorable  and  patriotic, 
but  sometimes  also  merely  for  enriching  himself.  He  ended 
a  glorious  life  by  years  of  deep  disgrace,  with  the  forfeiture 
of  a  Hellenic  esteem  and  brotherhood — a  rich  man,  an  exile, 
a  traitor,  and  a  pensioner  of  the  Great  King,  pledged  to 
undo  his  own  previous  work  of  liberation  accomplished  at 
the  victory  of  Salamis. — Grote. 

Battle  of  Flataea  (b.  c.  479). — Mardonius  and  his  army 
passed  the  winter  quietly  in  Thessaly,  for  the  northern  Greeks 
were  still  obedient  to  the  Persians.  When  summer  came  he 
marched  into  Attica.     The  Athenians  had  come  back  to 


KEADIKGS    IK    GREEK    HISTORY.  123 

their  ruined  homes  after  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  the  city 
was  partly  rebuilt.  They  expected  help  from  Sparta  on  the 
approach  of  Mardonius,  but  none  came ;  and  Athens  was  a 
second  time  abandoned  and  destroyed.  At  length  the  Spar- 
tans put  forth  all  their  strength.  They  summoned  the  land- 
forces  of  all  the  allies;  and  an  army  of  110,000  men  marched 
against  Mardonius,  under  Pausanias,  the  guardian  of  Leoni- 
das'  young  son.  (Sept.  b.  c.  479.)  Mardonius  had  his  head- 
quarters in  Thebes,  and  the  Thebans,  out  of  hatred  to 
Athens,  served  zealously  in  the  Persian  army.  Pausanias 
marched  into  Boeotia,  and  for  ten  days  the  armies  faced  one 
another  near  Plataea.  On  the  eleventh-  day  the  Greeks  coujd 
get  no  more  water.  The  braver  captains  were  impatient  for 
battle ;  but  Pausanias  dared  not  attack  the  Persians  where 
they  stood,  and  gave  orders  at  nightfall  to  fall  back  on  a  bet- 
ter position.  The  movement  threw  the  Greek  army  into 
disorder,  and  its  three  divisions  were  widely  separated  from 
one  another.  The  next  morning  Mardonius,  seeing  that  the 
Greeks  had  retreated,  ordered  an  attack.  The  Spartans  and 
Tegeans  fronted  the  main  body  of  the  Persian  army;  the 
Athenians  were  at  some  distance  at  their  left ;  and  the  third 
division  of  the  Greeks  had  retreated  too  far  to  take  part  in 
the  battle.  The  Persians  advanced  to  within  bowshot,  and 
fixing  their  wooden  shields  like  a  palisade  in  front  of  them, 
poured  flights  of  arrows  upon  the  Spartans.  It  was  the 
custom  of  the  Spartans  before  beginning  a  battle  to  offer 
sacrifice,  and  to  wait  for  an  omen,  or  sign  from  heaven,  in 
the  offering.  Even  now,  as  the  arrows  fell,  Pausanius  offered 
sacrifice.  The  omens  were  bad,  and  he  dared  not  advance. 
The  Spartans  knelt  behind  their  shields,  but  the  arrows 
pierced  them,  and  the  bravest  men  died  sorrowfully,  lament- 
ing not  for  death,  but  because  they  died  without  striking  a 
blow  for  Sparta.    In  his  distress  Pausanias  called  on  the  god- 


124  HEADINGS    IK    GilEilK  HISTORY. 

dess  Hera:  while  lie  was  still  praying  the  Tegeans  advanced^ 
and  instantly  the  omens  changed.  Then  the  Spartans  threw 
themselves  upon  the  enemy.  The  palisade  went  down,  and 
the  Asiatics,  laying  aside  their  bows,  fought  desperately  with 
javelins  and  daggers.  But  they  had  no  metal  armor  to 
defend  them;  and  the  Spartans,  with  their  lances  fixed  and 
their  shields  touching  one  another,  bore  down  everything 
before  them.  The  Persians  turned  and  fled  to  their  fortified 
camp.  The  Spartans  assaulted  it,  but  they  were  unskilful 
in  attacking  fortifications,  and  the  Persians  kept  them 
at  bay  till  the  Athenians  came  up  victorious  over  the 
Thebans.  Then  the  camp  was  stormed,  and  the  miserable 
crowds  who  had  been  driven  into  it  were  cut  to  pieces.  No 
victory  was  ever  more  complete :  the  Persian  army  was  totally 
destroyed,  and  the  invasion  at  an  end.  Out  of  the  immense 
spoil  a  tenth  was  given  to  the  gods.  The  prize  of  valor  was 
adjudged  to  the  Platseans;  they  were  charged  with  the  duty 
of  preserving  the  tombs  of  the  slain  ;  and  Pausanius,  by 
solemn  oaths,  declared  their  territory,  in  which  the  battle  had 
been  fought,  to  be  sacred  ground  for  ever. — Fyffe. 

Aristides. — Of  Aristides  we  possess  unfortunately  no  de- 
scription froYn  the  hand  of  Thucydides.  Yet  his  character  is 
so  simple  and  consistent  that  we  may  safely  accept  the  brief 
but  unquahfied  encomium  of  Herodotus  and  Plato,  expanded 
as  it  is  in  the  biography  of  Plutarch  and  Cornelius  Nepos, 
however  little  the  details  of  the  latter  can  be  trusted.  Aris- 
tides was  inferior  to  Themistocles  in  resource,  quickness, 
flexibility,  and  power  of  coping  with  difficulties,  but  incom- 
parably superior  to  him,  as  well  as  to  other  rivals  and  con- 
temporaries, in  integrity,  public  as  well  as  private;  inacces- 
sible to  pecuniary  temptations  as  well  as  to  other  seductive 
influences,  and  deserving  as  well  as  enjoying  the  highest 


READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY.  125 

measure  of  personal  confidence.  He  is  described  as  the  pecu- 
liar friend  of  Clisthenes,  the  first  founder  of  the  democracy 
— as  pursuing  a  straight  and  single-handed  course  in  political 
life,  with  no  solicitude  for  party-ties,  and  with  little  care 
either  to  conciliate  friends  or  to  ofifend  enemies — as  unflinch- 
ing in  the  exposure  of  corrupt  practices,  by  whomsoever 
committed  or  upheld — as  earning  for  himself  the  lofty  sur- 
name of  the  Just,  not  less  by  his  judicial  decisions  in  the 
capacity  of  archon,  than  by  his  equity  in  private  arbitrations 
and  even  his  candor  in  political  dispute — and  as  manifesting, 
throughout  a  long  public  life  full  of  tempting  opportunities, 
an  uprightness  without  flaw  and  beyond  all  suspicion  ;  recog- 
nized equally  by  his  bitter  contemporary  the  poet  Timocreon 
and  by  the  allies  of  Athens  upon  whom  he  first  assessed  the 
tribute.  Few  of  the  leading  men  in  any  part  of  Greece  were 
without  some  taint  on  their  reputation,  deserved  or  unde- 
served, in  regard  to  pecuniary  probity.  But  whoever  became 
notoriously  recognized  as  possessing  this  vital  quality,  ac- 
quired by  means  of  it  a  fii-mer  hold  on  the  public  esteem 
than  even  eminent  talents  could  confer.  Thucydides  ranks 
conspicuous  probity  among  the  first  of  the  many  ascendant 
qualities  possessed  by  Pericles ;  while  Nicias,  equal  to  him  in 
this  respect,  though  immeasurably  inferior  in  every  other,  owed 
to  it  a  still  larger  proportion  of  that  exaggerated  confidence 
which  the  Athenian  people  continued  so  long  to  repose  in 
him.  The  abilities  of  Aristides— though  apparently  ade- 
quate to  every  occasion  in  which  he  was  engaged,  and  only 
inferior  when  we  compare  him  with  so  remarkable  a  man  as 
Themistocles— were  put  in  the  shade  by  this  incorruptible 
probity,  which  procured  for  him,  however,  along  with  the 
general  esteem,  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  private  enmity 
from  jobbers  whom  he  exposed,  and  even  some  jealousy  from 
persons  who  heard  it  proclaimed  with  offensive  ostentation, 


126  READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

We  are  told,  that  a  rustic  and  unlettered  citizen  gave  his  ostra- 
cizing vote  and  expressed  his  dislike  against  Aristides,  on  the 
simple  ground  that  he  was  tired  of  hearing  him  always  called 
the  Just.  Now  the  purity  of  the  most  honorable  man  will 
not  bear  to  be  so  boastfully  talked  of  as  if  he  were  the  only 
honorable  man  in  the  country.  The  less  it  is  obtruded,  the 
more  deeply  and  cordially  will  it  be  felt,  and  the  story  just 
alluded  to,  whether  true  or  false,  illustrates  that  natural 
reaction  of  feeling  produced  by  absurd  encomiasts,  or  per- 
haps by  insidious  enemies  under  the  mask  of  encomiasts, 
who  trumpeted  for  Aristides  as  The  Just  man  of  Attica,  so  as 
to  wound  the  legitimate  dignity  of  every  one  else.  Neither 
indiscreet  friends  nor  artful  enemies,  however,  could  rob  him 
of  the  lasting  esteem  of  his  countrymen,  which  he  enjoyed, 
though  with  intervals  of  their  displeasure,  to  the  end  of  his 
life.  He  was  ostracized  during  a  part  of  the  period  between 
the  battles  of  Marathon  and  Salamis  at  a  time  when  the  ri- 
valry between  him  and  Themistocles  was  so  violent  that  both 
could  not  remain  at  Athens  without  peril,  but  the  danger  of 
Athens  during  the  invasion  of  Xerxes  brought  him  back  be- 
fore the  ten  years  of  exile  were  expired.  His  fortune,  origi- 
nally very  moderate,  was  still  farther  diminished  during  the 
course  of  his  life,  so  that  he  died  very  poor,  and  the  state  was 
obliged  to  lend  aid  to  his  children. — Grote. 

Cimon.  Wars.  Death  of  Ephialtes. — On  the  death 
of  Aristides,  Cimon  became  the  undisputed  leader  of  the 
conservative  party  at  Athens.  Cimon  was  generous,  affable, 
magnificent ;  and,  notwithstanding  his  pohtical  views,  of  ex- 
ceedingly popular  manners.  He  had  inherited  the  military 
genius  of  his  father,  and'  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  com- 
mander of  his  time.  He  employed  the  vast  wealth  acquired 
in  his  expeditions  in  adorning  Athens  and  gratifying  his 


READIITGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  127 

fellow-citizens.  It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  he  suc- 
ceeded Aristides  in  the  command  of  the  allied  fleet.  His 
first  exploits  were  the  capture  of  Eion  on  the  Strymon,  and 
the  reduction  of  the  island  of  Scyros  (b.  c.  476).  A  few  years 
afterwards  we  find  the  first  symptoms  of  discontent  among 
the  members  of  the  Confederacy  of  Delos.  Naxos,  one  of  the 
confederate  islands,  and  the  largest  of  the  Cyclades,  revolted 
in  B.  c.  466,  probably  from  a  feeling  of  the  growing  oppress- 
iveness of  the  Athenian  headship.  It  was  immediately  in- 
vested by  the  confederate  fleet,  reduced,  and  made  tributary 
to  Athens.  This  was  another  step  towards  dominion  gained 
by  the  Athenians,  whose  pretensions  were  assisted  by  the 
imprudence  of  the  allies.  Many  of  the  smaller  states  belong- 
ing to  the  confederacy,  wearied  with  perpetual  hostilities, 
commuted  for  a  money  payment  the  ships  which  they  were 
bound  to  supply ;  and  thus,  by  depriving  themselves  of  a 
navy,  lost  the  only  means  by  which  they  could  assert  their 
independence. 

The  same  year  was  marked  by  a  memorable  action  against 
the  Persians.  Cimon,  at  the  head  of  200  Athenian  triremes, 
and  100  furnished  by  the  allies,  proceeded  to  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  Persians  had  assembled  a  large  fleet  and 
army  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Eurymedon  in  Pamphylia. 
After  speedily  defeating  the  fleet,  Cimon  landed  his  men  and 
marched  against  the  Persian  army,  which  was  drawn  up  on 
the  shore  to  protect  the  fleet.  The  land -force  fought  with 
bravery,  but  was  at  length  put  to  the  rout. 

The  island  of  Thasos  was  the  next  member  of  the  coun 
federacy  against  which  the  Athenians  directed  their  arms. 
After  a  siege  of  more  than  two  years  that  island  surrendered, 
when  its  fortifications  were  razed,  and  it  was  condemned  to 
pay  tribute  (b.  c.  463). 

The  expedition  to  Thasos  was  attended  with  a  circum- 


128  READIN^GS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY. 

stance  which  first  gives  token  of  the. coming  hostilities  be- 
tween Sparta  and  Athens.  At  an  early  period  of  the  block-, 
ade  the  Thasians  secretly  applied  to  the  Lacedaemonians  to 
make  a  diversion  in  their  favor  by  invading  Attica ;  and 
though  the  Lacedaemonians  were  still  ostensibly  allied  with 
Athens,  they  were  base  enough  to  comply  with  this  request. 
Their  treachery,  however,  was  prevented  by  a  terrible 
calamity  which  befell  themselves.  In  the  year  b.  c.  464  their 
capital  was  visited  by  an  earthquake,  which  laid  it  in  ruins 
and  killed  20,000  of  the  citizens.  But  this  was  only  part  of 
the  calamity.  The  earthquake  was  immediately  followed  by 
a  revolt  of  the  Helots,  who  were  always  ready  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  weakness  of  their  tyrants.  Being  joined  by  the 
Messenians,  they  fortified  themselves  in  Mount  Ithome  in 
Messenia.  Hence  this  revolt  is  sometimes  called  the  Third 
Messenian  War  (b.  c.  464).  After  two  or  three  years  spent 
in  a  vain  attempt  to  dislodge  them  from  this  position,  the 
Lacedaemonians  found  themselves  obliged  to  call  in  the 
assistance  of  their  allies,  and,  among  the  rest,  of  the  Athe- 
nians. It  was  with  great  difficulty  that  Cimon  persuaded  the 
Athenians  to  comply  with  this  request ;  but  he  was  at  length 
dispatched  to  Laconia  with  a  force  of  4,000  hoplites.  The 
aid  of  the  Athenians  had  been  requested  by  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians on  account  of  their  acknowledged  superiority  in  the 
art  of  attacking  fortified  places.  As,  however,  Cimon  did 
not  succeed  in  dislodging  the  Helots  from  Ithome,  the  Lace- 
daemonians, probably  from  a  consciousness  of  their  own 
treachery  in  the  affair  of  Thasos,  suspected  that  the  Athe- 
nians were  playing  them  false,  and  abruptly  dismissed  them, 
saying  that  they  had  no  longer  any  occasion  for  their 
services.  This  rude  dismissal  gave  great  oflfence  at  Athens, 
and  annihilated  for  a  time  the  political  influence  of  Cimon. 
The  democratical  party  had  from  the  first  opposed   the 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  129 

expedition ;  and  it  afforded  them  a  great  triumph  to  be  able 
to  point  to  Cimon  returning  not  only  unsuccessful,  but 
insulted.  Pericles  seized  the  occasion  presented  by  the  ill 
success  of  Cimon,  both  to  ruin  that  leader  and  strike  a  fatal 
blow  at  the  aristocratic  party.  Cimon  was  condemned  by 
ostracism  to  a  ten  years^  banishment.  Party  violence  even 
went  to  the  length  of  assassination.  Ephialtes  fell  beneath 
the  dagger  of  a  Boeotian,  hired  by  the  conservative  party  to 
dispatch  him.  It  was  from  this  period  that  the  long  admin- 
istration of  Pericles  may  be  said  to  have  commenced. — 
Smith. 

Pericles. — Of  Pericles  it  may  be  enough  to  say  that,  with 
the  wisdom  and  foresight  of  Themistocles,  he  combined  an  in- 
tegrity of  character  altogether  beyond  that  of  his  great  master. 
Moving  amongst  venal  men,  Pericles  escaped  even  the  impu- 
tation of  corruption.  Seeing  clearly  from  the  first  that 
Themistocles  had  turned  the  energy  of  his  countrymen  in 
the  right  direction,  he  set  himself  to  the  task  of  carrying 
out  his  policy  with  unswerving  zeal.  Like  Themistocles  he 
saw  that  Athens  must  keep  hold  of  the  sea,  and  the  Long 
Walls  which  he  built  made  her  practically  a  maritime  city. 
Like  him  also  he  could  see  when  bounds  had  been  reached 
beyond  which  Athenian  empire  ought  not  to  pass,  and  he 
enforced  on  himself  and  urged  with  all  the  strength  of  his 
eloquence  on  others,  the  principle  that  only  at  the  peril  of 
her  existence  could  Athens  commit  herself  to  a  career  of 
distant  conquests. 

Under  the  guidance  of  this  great  statesman  Athens  reached 
her  utmost  glory ;  but  although  he  could  hold  together  a 
large  empire  and  enforce  that  unity  of  action  which  was 
needed  for  its  maintenance,  it  cannot  be  said  that  his  mind 
grasped  the  idea  of  anything  like  national  union  in  the  sense 


130  HEADINGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY. 

which  those  words  bear  for  us.^  The  judgment  of  the  allies 
was  not  to  be  asked  in  any  course  of  action  on  which  Athens 
had  resolved,  and  any  unwillingness  to  take  part  in  such 
action  was  treated  as  rebellion.  Pericles  had,  indeed,  his 
Panhellenic  theories ;  but  these  theories  were  to  be  carried 
out  rather  by  magnifying  Athens  than  by  treating  the  allies 
as  if  they  were  Athenians.  Athens  with  him  was  to  be  the 
**  School  of  Hellas,"  by  uniting  within  her  walls  all  that  was 
greatest  in  science,  all  that  was  most  brilliant  in  culture,  all 
that  was  most  magnificent  in  art.  To  prevent  an  enemy  from 
occupying  the  large  extent  of  ground  enclosed  between  the 
two  long  walls  already  built,  a  third  wall  was  carried  from 
the  city  parallel  to  the  western  wall  at  a  distance  of  550  feet 
to  the  harbor  of  Mounychia.  But  the  costliest  works  of 
Pericles  were  confined  within  a  much  narrower  circuit,  A 
new  theater  was  built  for  the  exhibition  of  plays  during  the 
Panathenaic  festival;  huge  gates,  called  Propylaea,  guarded 
the  entrance  to  the  summit  of  the  rock  on  which  art  of 
every  kind  achieved  its  highest  triumphs,  while  high  above 
all  towered  the  magnificent  fabric  of  the  Parthenon,  the 
home  of  the  virgin  goddess,  whose  form,  standing  in  front  of 
the  temple,  might  be  seen  by  the  mariner  as  he  doubled  the 
Cape  of  Sounion. — Cox. 

Education  of  an  Athenian  Citizen. — There  seems  to 
be  every  reason  to  believe  that,  in  general  intelligence,  the 
Athenian  populace  far  surpassed  the  lower  orders  of  any 
community  that  has  ever  existed.  It  must  be  considered 
that  to  be  a  citizen  was  to  be  a  legislator,  a  soldier,  a  judge — 
one  upon  whose  voice  might  depend  the  fate  of  the  wealthi- 
est tributary  state,  of  the  most  eminent  public  man.  The 
lowest  offices,  both  of  agriculture  and  of  trade,  were,  in 
common,   performed  by  slaves.    The  commonwealth  sup- 


READIN^GS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  131 

plied  its  meanest  members  with  the  support  of  life,  the 
opportunity  of  leisure,  and  the  means  of  amusement.  Books, 
indeed,  were  few,  but  they  were  excellent,  and  they  were 
accurately  known.  Books,  however,  were  the  least  part  of 
the  education  of  an  Athenian  citizen.  Let  us,  for  a  moment, 
transport  ourselves  in  thought  to  that  glorious  city.  Let  us 
imagine  that  we  are  entering  its  gates  in  the  time  of  its 
power  and  glory.  A  crowd  i&  assembled  round  a  portico. 
All  are  gazing  with  delight  at  the  entablature,  for  Phidias  is 
putting  up  the  frieze.  We  turn  into  another  street;  a  rhap- 
sodist  is  reciting  there ;  men,  women,  children  are  throng- 
ing round  him ;  the  tears  are  running  down  their  cheeks ; 
their  eyes  are  fixed;  their  very  breath  is  still,  for  he  is 
telling  how  Priam  fell  at  the  feet  of  Achilles  and  kissed 
those  hands — the  terrible,  the  murderous — which  had  slain 
so  many  of  his  sons.  We  enter  the  public  place  ;  there  is  a 
ring  of  youths,  all  leaning  forward,  with  sparkling  eyes  and 
gestures  of  expectation.  Socrates  is  pitted  against  the 
famous  Atheist  from  Ionia,  and  has  just  brought  him  to  a 
contradiction  in  terms.  But  we  are  interrupted.  The 
herald  is  crying,  "Room  for  the  Prytanes."  The  general 
assembly  is  to  meet.  The  people  are  swarming  in  on  every 
side.  Proclamation  is  made,  "  Who  wishes  to  speak  ? " 
There  is  a  shout  and  a  clapping  of  hands.  Pericles  is 
mounting  the  stand.  Then  for  a  play  of  Sophocles,  and 
away  to  sup  with  Aspasia.  I  know  of  no  modern  university 
which  has  so  excellent  a  system  of  education. — Macaulat. 

Corinth  and  Corc3rra. — Epidamnus,  a  colony  of  Corcyra, 
on  the  coast  of  Myricum,  was  distracted  by  internal  feuds, 
during  which  the  aristocratic  party  was  expelled  from  the 
city.  With  the  assistance  of  the  neighboring  barbarians  the 
exiled  nobles  pressed  the  town  closely.    The  Epidamnians 


132      EEADINGS  IN^  GREEK  HISTORY. 

applied  for  succor  to  their  mother  city  of  Corcyra,  and  as 
the  Corcyrseans  did  not  listen  to  the  request,  the  Epidam- 
nians  addressed  themselves  to  Corinth,  the  mother  city  of 
Corcyra,  which  had  likewise  taken  a  part  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  colony  of  Epidamnus.  Corinth  gladly  seized 
the  occasion,  because  it  afforded  her  an  opportunity  of  curb- 
ing the  spirit  of  Corcjrra,  which  had  become  very  powerful, 
and  neglected  the  performance  of  the  ordinary  duties  of  a 
colony  toward  a  mother  city.  A  Corinthian  army  accord- 
ingly proceeded  by  land  to  Epidamnus,  and  the  Corcyrseans, 
on  being  informed  of  this,  went  with  a  fleet  to  Epidamnus, 
demanding  of  its  citizens  to  restore  the  exiles  and  to  dismiss 
the  Corinthian  garrison.  When  this  was  refused,  the  Cor- 
cyraeans,  joined  by  the  exiles  and  others,  blockaded  Epi- 
damnus by  land  and  by  sea.  The  Corinthians  then  sent  out 
a  large  force  to  raise  the  siege  of  Epidamnus,  and  at  the  same 
time  declared  war  against  Corcyra.  A  naval  engagement 
took  place  between  the  Corinthian  and  Corcyrsean  fleets  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Ambracian  gulf,  in  which  the  Corcyrasans 
gained  a  complete  victory.  On  the  same  day,  Epidamnus 
was  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  besiegers,  who  sold  all  its 
inhabitants  as  slaves,  while  the  Corinthians  were  kept  in 
captivity.  This  happened  b.  c.  434.  After  this  defeat,  the 
Corinthians  made  great  efibrts  to  protect  their  own  colonies 
on  the  Ionian  sea,  and  to  strengthen  themselves  for  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  war,  while  the  Corcyraeans,  on  the  other 
hand,  applied  for  assistance  to  Athens.  Corinth  also  sent 
envoys  to  Athens  to  counteract  their  influence.  The  Athe- 
nians took  the  afiair  into  serious  consideration,  and  were  at 
first  inclined  to  side  with  Corinth,  but  afterwards  concluded 
a  defensive  alhance  with  Corcyra  for  the  protection  of  their 
respective  territories.  But  at  the  same  time  they  did  not 
declare  war  against  Corinth.     In  accordance  with  this  treaty 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  133 

of  alliance,  Athens  sent  ten  galleys  to  Corcyra,  with  orders 
not  to  engage  in  any  contest  unless  Corcyra  should  be 
attacked.  The  Corinthian  fleet  of  150  ships  soon  after  fell 
in,  near  Sybota,  with  that  of  the  Corcyraeans,  which  con- 
sisted of  110,  the  Corcyraean  land  army  being  drawn  up  on 
the  coast.  In  the  ensuing  sea-fight  neither  party  gained  a 
decisive  victory.  The  ten  Athenian  galleys,  however,  seeing 
their  allies  hard  pressed,  took  part  in  the  contest.  In  the 
meantime  twenty  more  ships  had  come  irom  Athens,  and 
when  they,  in  conjunction  with  the  Corcyraeans,  again  offered 
battle,  the  Corinthians  withdrew,  merely  charging  the  Athe- 
nians with  having  violated  the  peace.  These  occurrences 
belong  to  the  year  432  b.  c,  and  are  the  first  acts  of  open 
hostility  between  Athens  and  Corinth. — Schmitz. 

Death  of  Pericles.— In  the  third  year  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war,  Pericles  was  carried  off  by  a  lingering  illness,  which 
was,  perhaps,  connected  with  the  epidemic,  but  seems  not 
to  have  exhibited  any  of  its  violent  symptoms.  Possibly  the 
pestilence  only  struck  him  by  depriving  him  of  his  two 
legitimate  sons,  his  sister,  and  many  of  his  most  valued  rela- 
tives and  friends.  He  seems  to  have  died  with  philosophical 
composure.  He  allowed  the  women  who  attended  him  to 
hang  a  charm  about  his  neck,  but  he  showed  it  with  quiet 
playfulness  to  a  friend  as  a  sign  to  what  pass  his  disorder 
had  brought  him  when  he  could  submit  to  such  trifling. 
When  he  was  near  his  end,  and  apparently  insensible,  his 
friends,  gathered  round  his  bed,  relieved  their  sorrow  by 
recalling  the  remembrance  of  his  military  exploits  and  of 
the  trophies  which  he  had  raised.  He  interrupted  them, 
and  observed  that  they  had  omitted  the  most  glorious  praise 
which  he  could  claim:  "Other  generals  had  been  as  fortu- 
nate, but   he   had  never   caused  an   Athenian   to  put  on 


134  EEADIKGS     IK    GREEK     HISTORY. 

mourning."  A  singular  ground  of  satisfaction,  notwith- 
standing the  caution  which  marked  his  military  career,  if  he 
had  been  conscious  of  having  involved  his  country  in  the 
bloodiest  war  it  had  ever  waged.  His  death  was  a  loss  which 
Athens  could  not  repair.  Many  were  eager  to  step  into  his 
place,  but  there  was  no  man  able  to  fill  it,  and  the  fragments 
of  his  power  were  snatched  up  by  unworthy  hands.  He 
died  when  the  caution  on  which  he  valued  himself  was  more 
than  ever  needed  to  guard  Athens  from  fatal  errors,  and 
when  the  humanity  which  breathes  through  his  dying  boast 
might  have  saved  her  from  her  deepest  disgrace. — Thir- 

WALL. 

Alcibiades. — To  the  possession  of  vast  wealth  this  man 
added  a  readiness  of  wit,  a  fertility  of  invention,  a  power  of 
complaisance,  which  invested  his  manner,  when  he  wished  to 
please,  with  a  singular  charm.  Magnificent  in  his  tastes, 
and  reveling  in  the  elegance  of  the  most  refined  Athenian 
luxury,  Alcibiades  shrunk  from  no  hardship  in  war,  and 
faced  danger  with  a  bravery  which  was  above  cavil  or  ques- 
tion. He  has  been  compared  with  Themistocles,  but  few 
comparisons  could  be  more  unjust.  Professing  no  austere 
righteousness,  Themistocles  yet  from  first  to  last  promoted 
the  best  interest  of  his  country  with  unswerving  steadiness, 
and  carried  out  one  uniform  policy  which  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  Athenian  empire,  and  continued  to  sustain  its 
greatness.  Alcibiades  had  no  policy.  Hating  a  demos  in 
his  heart,  he  was,  nevertheless,  as  ready  to  destroy  an 
oligarchy  as  to  uproot  a  free  constitution,  and  he  was,  there- 
fore, justly  dreaded  by  men  of  all  political  parties  as  one 
treading  in  the  paths  of  the  old  Hellenic  despots.  To  com- 
mit the  people  to  his  plans  he  could  act  or  utter  a  lie  with 
only  a  feeling  of  self-complacence  at  his  own  cleverness. 


READINGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY.  135 

Utterly  selfish  and  unscrupulous,  Alcibiades,  in  company 
with  scoundrels  like  Critias,  sought  the  conversation  of 
Socrates ;  but  the  society  of  this  wonderful  man  only  made 
him  more  dangerous,  and  if  we  are  to  believe  the  stories 
told  of  him,  his  youthful  career  was  one  unbroken  course  of 
gilded  sensuality  and  of  barbarous  ruffianism,  hidden  by  a 
veil  of  superficial  refinement.  Under  any  circumstances 
such  a  man  must  be  infamous;  but  Alcibiades  had  oppor- 
tunities of  committing  crime  on  a  vast  scale,  and  he  availed 
himself  of  them  to  the  utmost. — Cox. 

The  Sicilian  Expedition. — Egesta  and  Selinus,  two 
cities  in  western  Sicily,  became  involved  in  a  war.  Selinus, 
aided  by  Syracuse,  was  pressing  hard  upon  Egesta.  The 
Egestaeans  sent  envoys  to  invoke  the  aid  of  Athens.  The 
envoys  were  supported  by  Alcibiades,  who,  it  is  said,  had 
plans  which  extended  even  to  the  conquest  of  Carthage. 
Nicias  and  his  adherents  were  opposed  to  any  interference  in 
the  afiairs  of  Sicily,  and  sought  to  knock  the  scheme  on  the 
head. 

Preparations  for  Invading  Sicily. — Nicias  now  rested 
his  last  hopes  on  the  effect  which  he  might  produce  by  a 
statement  of  the  preparations  necessary  for  the  intended 
expedition.  He  observed  that  they  were  going  to  invade  an 
island  which  contained  a  number  of  great  and  independent 
cities,  abundantly  furnished  with  the  means  of  defence,  and 
among  them  none  were  more  powerful  and  better  provided 
with  every  kind  of  arms  for  naval  and  military  warfare  than 
the  two  which  were  the  immediate  objects  of  their  hostility 
— Selinus  and  Syracuse.  And  neither  were  wanting  in 
public  or  private  opulence ;  great  treasures  were  said  to  be 
accumulated  in  the  temples  of  Selinus,  and  Syracuse  drew 


136  READIKGS     IN     GEEEK     HISTORY. 

a  revenue  from  her  barbarian  subjects.  There  were,  in  par- 
ticular, two  important  points  in  which  the  Sicehots  had  an 
advantage  over  Athens — the  corn  they  used  was  of  their 
own  growth,  and  they  were  strong  in  cavalry.  It  would 
not,  therefore,  be  sufficient  to  send  out  a  powerful  fleet ;  it 
must  be  accomplished  by  a  land  force  capable  of  withstand- 
ing the  superiority  of  the  enemy's  horse,  for  they  might 
find  themselves  unable  to  procure  any  cavalry  in  Sicily 
except  such  as  the  Egestseans  could  furnish.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  expedition  in  which  they  were  about 
to  embark  was  not  like  those  which  they  were  used  to  make  to 
neighboring  countries,  where  their  armaments  could  receive 
supplies  and  reinforcements  from  home  in  a  few  days.  They 
were  going  to  a  land  so  distant  that  in  the  winter  season 
four  months  might  elapse  before  despatches  from  the  army 
could  reach  Athens.  It  was  therefore  necessary  carefully 
to  calculate  its  demands  beforehand,  and  to  provide  for  them 
amply.  They  would  have  need  of  a  strong  body  of  heavy- 
armed  infantry ;  of  archers  and  slingers  in  great  numbers  to 
face  the  enemy's  cavalry  ;  of  a  fleet  which  would  keep 
undisputed  command  of  the  sea,  and,  as  they  might  be 
detained  on  their  passage  by  contrary  winds,  on  points  of 
the  coasts  where  provisions  were  not  to  be  purchased,  they 
must  load  a  sufficient  number  of  vessels  with  com,  and 
press  slaves  into  their  service  from  the  mills.  Above  all, 
they  must  not  go  empty-handed,  trusting  to  the  vaunted 
riches  of  Egesta,  which  would  probably  prove  mere  words. 
There  could  be  no  prospect  of  success,  nor  even  of  safety, 
unless  their  preparations  were  on  such  a  scale  as  to  give 
them  a  decided  superiority  over  the  enemy  in  every  respect 
excepting  the  numbers  of  the  heavy  infantry.  And  they 
ought  to  make  their  calculations  as  if  they  were  sending  out 
a  colony  to  found  a  city  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  population, 


READINGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY.  137 

where,  unless  they  obtained  the  upper  hand  on  the  first  day 
of  their  landing,  they  could  never  gain  a  footing.  With  all 
these  preparations,  they  would  leave  much  to  depend  on  the 
favors  of  fortune ;  but  what  he  had  proposed  could  not  be 
omitted  without  rashness.  If,  however,  any  one  present  was 
of  a  different  opinion  he  was  willing  to  resign  his  command 
to  him. 

The  impression  which  this  statement  made  on  the  assembly 
was  just  the  opposite  of  that  which  Nicias  intended.  Instead 
of  being  discouraged  by  the  magnitude  of  the  preparations 
which  he  described,  they  thought  that  they  had  now  the 
fullest  warrant  of  success  that  his  experience  and  judgment 
could  give  ;  even  the  elder  and  more  cautious  of  the  citizens 
now  began  to  share  the  confidence  of  the  youthful  and 
sanguine  spirits  who  were  attracted  by  the  novelty  of  the 
enterprise  and  by  the  remoteness  of  its  object,  while  the 
largest  class  reckoned,  some  upon  a  gainful  service,  and  all 
upon  a  conquest  which  would  jield  an  inexhaustible  revenue. 
The  few  who  still  harbored  any  misgivings  were  ashamed  to 
express  them,  and  suffered  themselves  to  be  carried  along  by 
the  current.  Nicias  was  onlled  upon  distinctly  to  specify 
the  amount  of  the  force  which  he  deemed  necessary.  He 
complied  with  reluctance,  reserving,  as  he  said,  many  par- 
ticulars for  a  calmer  deliberation  with  his  colleagues  ;  but  as 
far  as  he  could  form  an  estimate  on  so  short  a  notice,  he 
believed  that  he  must  not  ask  for  less  than  a  hundred  gal- 
leys, together  with  transports,  and  5,000  heavy  infantry, 
with  bowmen  and  slingers,  and  all  other  things  needful  in 
proportion.  One  of  the  warmest  advocates  of  the  expedition, 
named  Demostratus,  now  came  forward  with  a  motion  which, 
he  said,  would  deprive  Nicias  of  every  pretext  for  hesitation 
and  reserve,  and  on  his  proposals  a  decree  was  passed  by 
which  the  generals  were  empowered  to  use  their  own  discre- 


188  READINGS     IK     GJlEEK     HISTORY. 

tion,  both  as  to  the  force  of  the  armament  and  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  expedition. 

The  stir  of  preparation  immediately  began,  both  at  Athens 
and  in  the  ports  and  arsenals  of  the  allies  whose  contingents 
were  required,  and  the  news  spread  ^rapidly  through  Greece. 
At  Athens  the  public  mind  was  entirely  occupied  by  this 
one  thought;  all  conversation  turned  upon  this  subject. 

The  young  greedily  listened  to  the  descriptions  with  which 
the  veterans  who  had  already  served  in  Sicily  fed  their  curi- 
osity; and  in  the  palaestra  they  w^ould  interrupt  their  exer- 
cises to  trace  the  form  of  the  island  in  the  sand,  and  to  dis- 
cuss its  position  with  respect  to  Africa  and  Carthage.  During 
this  interval  of  anxious  expectation  the  desire  of  looking 
into  the  future,  always  active  among  the  Greeks,  w^as  un- 
usually excited.  It  was  a  time  which  of  itself  called  forth 
omens  and  prophecies,  and  the  leaders  of  the  contending 
parties  at  Athens  seem  not  to  have  neglected  the  ordinary 
arts  of  working  on  the  popular  superstition.  Nicias,  who 
was  himself  in  this  respect  quite  on  a  level  with  the  vulgar, 
had  probably  some  influence  among  the  Athenian  priests, 
and  they  are  said  to  have  announced  a  great  number  of 
sinister  auguries.  An  oracle  directed  the  Athenians  to  fetch 
the  priestess  of  Athens  from  Clazomense;  it  turned  out  that 
her  name  (Hesychia)  signified  quiet,  and  it  was  interpreted 
as  a  declaration  that  the  gods  forbade  the  expedition.  News, 
too,  was  brought  from  Delphi  of  a  portent  which  threatened 
the  Athenian  arms  with  some  disaster.  On  the  other  hand, 
Alcibiades  was  not  at  a  loss  for  expedients  of  a  like  nature 
to  keep  up  the  spirits  of  the  people.  He,  too,  had  his 
friendly  diviners,  who,  among  their  oracular  treasures,  found 
some  ancient  predictions,  importing  that  the  Athenians  were 
to  reap  great  renown  from  Sicily.  An  answer  which  he 
obtained  from  the  temple  of  Amnion  seemed  more  distinctly 


READIKOS     IN     GHEEK     HISTORY.  139 

to  foretell  the  conquest  of  Syracuse,  and  one  no  less  en- 
couraging was  brought  from  Dodona. — Thirwall. 

Mutilation  of  the  Hermse. — After  between  two  and 
three  months  of  active  preparations,  the  expedition  was 
almost  ready  to  start,  when  an  event  happened  which  fatally 
poisoned  the  prevalent  cheerfulness  of  the  city.  This  was 
the  mutilation  of  Herraae,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
events  in  all  Grecian  history. 

The  Hermae,  or  half-statues  of  the  god  Hermes,  were 
blocks  of  marble  about  the  height  of  the  human  figure.  The 
upper  part  was  cut  into  a  head,  face,  neck,  and  bust ;  the 
lower  part  was  left  as  a  quadrangular  pillar,  broad  at  the 
base,  without  arms,  body,  or  legs.  They  were  distributed  in 
great  numbers  throughout  Athens,  and  always  in  the  most 
conspicuous  situations,  standing  beside  the  outer  doors  of 
private  houses  as  well  as  of  temples ;  near  the  most  frequented 
porticoes;  at  the  intersection  of  crossways;  in  the  public 
agora.  They  were  thus  present  to  the  eye  of  every  Athenian 
in  all  his  acts  of  intercommunion,  either  for  business  or 
pleasure,  with  his  fellow-citizens.  The  religious  feeling  of 
the  Greeks  considered  the  god  to  be  planted  or  domiciliated 
where  his  statue  stood,  so  that  the  companionship,  sympathy, 
and  guardianship  of  Hermes  became  associated  with  most  of 
the  manifestations  of  conjunct  life  at  Athens,  pohtical,  social, 
commercial,  or  gymnastic.  Moreover,  the  quadrangular 
fashion  of  these  statues,  employed  occasionally  for  other 
gods  besides  Hermes,  was  a  most  ancient  relic  handed  down 
from  the  primitive  rudeness  of  Pelasgian  workmanship,  and 
was  popular  in  Arcadia  as  well  as  peculiarly  frequent  in 
Athens. 

About  the  end  of  May,  415  b.  c,  in  the  course  of  one  and 
the  same  night,  all  these  Hermae,  one  of  the  most  peculiar 


140  BEADIK'GS    IN     GREEK    HISTORY. 

marks  of  the  city,  were  mutilated  by  unknown  hands.  Their 
characteristic  features  were  knocked  off  or  levelled,  so  that 
nothing  was  left  except  a  mass  of  stone  with  no  resemblance 
to  humanity  or  deity.  All  were  thus  dealt  with  in  the  same 
way,  save  and  except  very  few ;  nay,  Andocides  affirms  (and 
I  incline  to  believe  him)  that  there  was  but  07ie  which 
escaped  unharmed. 

Such  was  the  mysterious  incident  which  broke  in  upon 
the  eager  and  bustling  movement  of  Athens  a  few  days 
before  the  Sicilian  expedition  was  in  condition  for  starting. 
In  reference  to  that  expedition,  it  was  taken  to  heart  as  a 
most  depressing  omen.  It  would  doubtless  have  been  so 
interpreted  had  it  been  a  mere  undesigned  accident  happen- 
ing to  any  venerated  religious  object,  -just  as  we  are  told  that 
similar  misgivings  were  occasioned  by  the  occurrence,  about 
this  same  time,  of  the  melancholy  festival  of  the  Adonia, 
wherein  the  women  loudly  bewailed  the  untimely  death  of 
Adonis. 

The  mutilation  of  the  Hermae,  however,  was  something  much 
more  ominous  than  the  worst  accident.  It  proclaimed  itself 
as  the  deliberate  act  of  organized  conspirators,  not  incon- 
siderable in  number,  whose  names  and  final  purpose  were 
indeed  unknown,  but  who  had  begun  by  committing  sacrilege 
of  a  character  flagrant  and  unheard  of.  For  intentional 
mutilation  of  a  public  and  sacred  statue,  where  the  material 
afforded  no  temptation  to  plunder,  is  a  case  to  which  we 
know  no  parallel ;  much  more,  mutilation  by  wholesale — 
spread  by  one  band  and  in  one  night  throughout  an  entire 
city.  Though  neither  the  parties  concerned,  nor  their  pur- 
poses, were  ever  more  than  partially  made  out,  the  concert 
and  conspiracy  itself  is  unquestionable. — Grote. 

Fall  of   Athens. — On   the   18th   of  May,  the  day  on 


READINGS    l^    GREEK     HISTORY.  141 

which  the  Athenians  had  been  accustomed  to  celebrate  the 
anniversary  of  the  immortal  victory  of  Salamis,  the  hostile 
armament  took  possession  of  their  harbors,  the  combined 
army  entered  their  gates.  The  walls  and  fortresses  of  the 
city  of  Minerva,  which  the  generous  magnanimity  of  its 
inhabitants,  preferring  the  public  safety  to  their  own,  had 
abandoned  in  defence  of  Greece  to  the  fury  of  a  barbarian 
invader,  were  ungratefully  leveled  to  the  ground  by  the 
implacable  resentment  of  the  Greeks,  who  executed  their 
destructive  purpose  with  all  the  eagerness  of  emulation, 
boasting,  amidst  the  triumphs  of  martial  music,  that  the 
demolition  of  Athens  would  be  regarded  in  succeeding  ages 
as  the  true  era  of  Grecian  freedom.  Yet,  after  they  had 
satisfied  their  vengeance,  they  seemed  to  regret  its  effects. 
The  day  was  concluded  with  a  magnificent  festival,  in  which 
the  recitation  of  the  poets,  formed  as  usual  the  principal 
ornament  of  the  entertainment.  Among  other  pieces  was 
rehearsed  the  Electra  of  Euripides,  and  particularly  that 
affecting  chorus,  "We  come,  0  daughter  of  Agamemnon, 
to  thy  rustic  and  humble  roof."  The  words  were  scarcely 
uttered  when  the  whole  assembly  melted  into  tears,  the  for- 
lorn condition  of  that  young  and  virtuous  princess,  expelled 
the  royal  palace  of  her  father,  and  inhabiting  a  miserable 
cottage,  in  want  and  wretchedness,  recalling  the  dreadful 
vicissitudes  of  fortune  which  had  befallen  Athens,  once 
mistress  of  the  sea  and  sovereign  of  Greece,  but  deprived  in 
one  fatal  hour  of  her  ships,  her  walls,  and  her  strength,  and 
reduced  from  the  pride  of  power  and  prosperity  to  misery, 
dependence,  and  servitude,  without  exerting  one  memorable 
effort  to  brighten  the  last  moment  of  her  destiny  and  ta 
render  her  fall  illustrious. — Gillies. 

The  Thirty  Tyrants. — Theramenes,  Critias,  and  their 


142  READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

associates,  wished  to  give  a  legitimate  aspect  to  the  power 
which  they  meant  to  usurp,  and  to  overthrow  the  con- 
stitution in  the  name  of  the  people.  But  they  did  not 
think  it  safe  to  trust  to  their  own  influence  for  the  first 
step,  and  though  Agis  was  still  at  hand  he  might  not  enter 
so  cordially  into  their  views,  and  did  not  possess  so  much 
weight  as  Lysander.  When,  therefore,  a  day  had  been  fixed 
for  an  assembly  to  consider  the  question  of  reforming  the 
constitution,  Lysander  was  sent  for  to  attend  the  discussion. 
Theramenes  had  undertaken  the  principal  part  in  the 
management  of  the  business.  He  proposed  that  the  supreme 
power  should,  for  the  present,  be  lodged  with  thirty  persons, 
who  should  be  authorized  to  draw  up  a  new  code  of  laws, 
which,  however,  was  to  be  conformable  to  the  ancient  insti- 
tutions according  to  a  model  framed  by  Draconitides.  The 
presence  of  Lysander  and  the  neighborhood  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  troops,  deterred  the  friends  of  liberty  from  coming 
forward  to  express  their  sentiments  on  this  proposition.  But 
its  nature  and  tendency  were  sufficiently  clear,  and  a  mur- 
mur of  disapprobation  ran  through  the  assembly.  Thera- 
menes treated  it  with  contemptuous  defiance,  but  Lysander 
silenced  it  by  a  graver  argument.  He  bade  the  malcontents 
take  notice  that  they  were  at  his  mercy,  and  were  no  longer 
protected  by  the  treaty.  The  fortifications  had  not  been 
demolished  within  the  time  prescribed,  and,  therefore,  in 
strictness  of  right  the  treaty  was  void.  Their  lives  were 
forfeited,  and  might  be  in  jeopardy  if  they  should  neglect 
the  proposition  of  Theramenes.  It  was  adopted  without 
further  hesitation,  and  a  list  of  the  thirty,  of  whom  ten 
were  named  by  Theramenes,  ten  by  the  Athenian  ephors, 
and  ten  were  nominally  left  to  the  choice  of  the  assembly, 
was  received  with  equal  unanimity.  .  .  .  .  As  soon  as 
this  affair  was  dispatched,  Lysander  departed  with  his  fleet 


READINGS    I]^    GREEK    HISTORY.  143 

to  Samos,  and  the  Peloponnesian  army  evacuated  Attica. — 
Thirwall. 

Life  of  Socrates. — Socrates  had  already  reached  an  age 
of  more  than  seventy  years  when  three  Athenian  citizens, 
the  leather-seller  Anytus,  the  poet  Meletus,  and  the  rhetor 
Lycon,  brought  against  him  three  charges  ;  the  first,  of 
rejecting  the  gods  worshiped  at  Athens ;  the  second,  of 
setting  up  new  deities  of  his  own ;  the  Ihird,  of  corrupting 
the  youth  of  the  city. 

As  a  citizen  this  illustrious  man  had  lived  a  life,  not 
merely  blameless,  but  deserving  the  gratitude  of  his  country- 
men. He  had  behaved  with  credit  at  Potidaea  and  Delium  ; 
he  had  firmly  opposed  the  madness  of  the  people  whom 
Theramenes  was  hounding  on  to  the  murder  of  the  generals 
after  the  battle  of  Arginusae  ;  with  the  same  composure  he 
had  gone  quietly  home  when  the  thirty  despots  commissioned 
him,  with  four  others,  to  arrest  and  bring  before  them  the 
Salaminian  Leon.  Some  said  that  as  a  young  man  he  lived 
viciously ;  but,  although  he  admitted  that  the  work  of  self- 
discipUne  w-as  with  him  a  severe  straggle,  there  seems  to  be 
no  ground  for  the  imputation.  The  physical  science  of  the 
age  of  Socrates  rested  almost  wholly  on  assumptions  and  on 
theories  which  were  virtually  nothing  more  than  guesses  to 
account  for  the  supposed  nature  of  phenomena.  It  would 
have  been  strange,  indeed,  if  some  one  had  not,  sooner  or 
later,  risen  to  protest  against  the  multiplication  of  113^0- 
theses  for  which  it  was  impossible  to  adduce  the  evidence  of 
fact.  Such  a  thinker  arose  in  Socrates,  in  whose  mind  the 
contradictory  conclusions  of  the  philosophers  (or,  as'  they 
were  called.  Sophists)  caused  a  revulsion  never  to  be  over- 
come. 

Turning,  therefore,  with  disgust  from  their  wranglings. 


144  READINGS    li^^    GKEEK    HISTOEY. 

Socrates  beheld  before  him,  as  he  thought,  a  vast  field  in 
which  the  plow  had  scarcely  turned  a  single  furrow.  If 
it  was  impossible  for  man  to  determine  what  were  the  con- 
stituents of  the  sun,  it  was  surely  not  impossible  for  him  to 
ascertain  the  conditions  of  his  own  life,  the  laws  which  he 
must  obey,  the  nature  of  his  relations  to  other  men,  and  the 
character  of  human  action.  Starting  with  the  assured  con- 
viction that  the  gods  were  everywhere  present,  he  held  it  to 
be  his  duty  to  ascertain  the  boundaries  which  separated  the 
province  of  human  reason  from  that  of  the  divine  govern- 
ment of  the  world.  Nor  was  he  at  any  loss  to  find  them. 
From  the  time  of  his  boyhood  he  had  heard  an  inward  voice 
which,  without  telling  him  what  he  should  do,  warned  him 
against  any  given  action.  This  was  styled  by  some  of  his 
disciples  the  Daimonion,  or  Daemon,  which,  by  revealing  to 
him  dangers  to  be  avoided,  made  his  way  plain  before  his 
face  ;  but  as  he  made  no  mystery  of  it  in  his  own  case,  so  it 
must  at  the  least  be  noted  that  he  nowhere  explicitly  speaks 
of  it  as  a  privilege  peculiar  to  himself. 

He  was  still  a  young  man  (how  young  we  know  not)  when 
the  sense  of  a  divine  mission,  binding  him  to  devote  his 
whole  life  to  the  service  of  his  fellows,  broke  upon  his  mind. 
Abandoning  his  occupation  as  a  sculptor,  and  retaining,  it 
would  seem,  no  means  of  making  an  income,  he  made  it  his 
business  to  put  all  men  to  the  test,  so  that  the  reality  or  the 
hollowness  of  their  professions  might,  for  their  own  higher 
good  and  happiness,  be  made  known  to  themselves  and  to 
the  world.  In  the  discharge  of  this  mission  he  might  be 
seen  at  all  times  of  the  day  in  all  places  of  public  resort, 
seeking  the  conversation  of  all,  and  shunning  none.  The 
perfect  frankness  of  the  man,  the  ingenuous  confession  of  his 
own  ignorance,  the  earnestness  which  convinced  his  hearers 
that,  if  he  exposed  their  shallowness,  it  was  only  in  order 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  145 

that  tliey  might  work  their  way  to  the  real  treasures  which 
awaited  all  disiuterested  seekers,  could  not  fail  to  gather 
round  him  knots  of  listeners,  of  whom  many  became  his 
disciples  or,  as  he  preferred  to  call  them,  his  friends.  The 
impression  thus  made  led  some  to  regard  him  as  a  man  of 
whom  the  world  had  not  yet  seen  the  peer ;  and  the  resolu- 
tion to  ascertain  the  truth  of  this  fact  by  a  reference  to  the 
Delphian  oracle  was  the  natural  consequence  of  this  con- 
viction. 

The  answer  brought  back  by  Chaereplion  from  the  shrine 
of  Phcebos  was  that  of  all  men  Socrates  was  the  wisest.  In 
Socrates  himself  these  words  awakened  no  feeling  of  self- 
gratulation,  but  merely  a  desire  to  solve  that  which  he  felt 
sure  must  be  a  riddle  or  enigma.  He  was  at  once  conscious 
of  his  own  ignorance  and  convinced  of  the  perfect  veracity  of 
the  god.  He  betook  himself,  therefore,  to  a  statesman  of 
wide  repute  for  his  wisdom,  but  he  soon  satisfied  himself  that 
his  supposed  knowledge  was  a  mere  mask.  When,  however, 
he  sought  to  convince  the  statesman  of  this  fact,  he  found 
that  he  had  only  made  him  his  enemy,  and  he  returned 
home,  assured  that  thus  far  the  Delphian  priestess  was  right. 
His  own  ignorance  and  that  of  the  statesman  w^ere  on  a  par ; 
but  he  was  conscious  of  it,  and  as  eager  to  acknowledge  it  as 
the  statesman  was  to  deny  it ;  and  so  far  he  was  the  wi'ser 
man.  The  experiment  was  tried  on  others  (reluctantly  and 
with  pain  and  fear,  because  he  saw  the  strength  of  the  resent- 
ment which  he  roused),  and  always  with  the  same  result. 
Hence,  when  he  asked  himself  whether  he  would  exchange 
his  own  general  consciousness  of  ignorance  for  the  partial 
knowledge  which  sought  to  pass  itself  off  as  omniscience,  he 
was  constrained  to  answer  the  question  in  the  negative,  and 
so  to  admit  that  the  Delphian  priestess  had  spoken  the  truth 
to  Chaerephon. 


146  READIiq^GS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

The  verdict  of  the  Delphian  god  compelled  him  to  take 
another  course,  if  he  wished  to  reconcile  the  truthfulness  of 
the  deity  with  his  own  ever-present  and  overpowering  sense 
of  ignorance.  Henceforth  he  must  question  the  greatest 
statesmen,  the  most  famous  poets,  and  the  most  illustrious 
philosophers  of  the  city;  and  he  proceeded  to  do  so  with  a 
subtlety  and  pertinacity  which  invariably  succeeded  in  show- 
ing either  that  the  man  interrogated  knew  not  his  own 
science  or  art,  or  that  the  knowledge  of  some  one  thing  liad 
led  him  to  regard  himself  as  knowing  every  thing.  AVhen, 
then,  Socrates,  not  as  a  teacher,  but  simply  as  one  aware  of 
his  own  ignorance  and  anxious  only  to  learn,  addressed  to 
statesmen  and  men  of  scientific  reputation  questions  on  the 
simplest  elements  of  the  subjections  with  which  they  pro- 
fessed to  deal,  and  gradually  drew  from  them  the  humiliating 
confession  that  even  of  these  elements  they  had  no  real 
knowledge  whatever,  it  was  natural  that  the  feelings  of  sur- 
prise and  mortification  should  pass  rapidly  through  the  stage 
of  resentment  into  that  of  abiding  hatred. 

But  when  we  come  to  the  trial  in  which  the  jealousies 
thus  smouldering  for  five-and-twenty  years  burst  into  flame, 
w^e  are  constrained  to  admit  that  our  knowledge  is  unfortu- 
nately scanty.  In  the  Platonic  Apology,  Socrates  is  made  to 
confess  his  total  want  of  practice  in  speaking  before  a  public 
assembly;  in  the  Xenophontic  treatise,  he  is  described  as 
telling  his  friend  Hermogenes  that,  in  obedience  to  the 
warning  voice  of  the  Daimonion,  he  had  abandoned  all 
thought  of  preparing  any  defence.  Yet,  if  we  are  to  believe 
Plato,  he  defended  himself,  not  merely  with  astonishing 
readiness  (for  this  from  his  consciousness  of  innocence  and 
of  general  uprightness  we  might  have  looked  for),  but  with 
the  peculiar  eloquence  of  which  Plato  was  the  unrivaled 
master ;   and,    moreover,  he   spoke  after^  a  fashion  which 


KE  A  DINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  147 

assuredly  seems  to  represent  rather  the  thoughts  of  Plato 
writing  many  years  later  than  those  which  would  probably 
have  passed  through  the  mind  of  Socrates. — Cox. 

Death  of  Socrates. — The  sentence  of  death  passed 
against  him,  by  what  majority  we  do  not  know ;  but  Socrates 
neither  altered  his  tone  nor  manifested  any  regret  for  the 
language  by  which  he  had  himself  seconded  the  purpose  of 
his  accusers.  On  the  contrary,  he  told  the  DicastS;  in  a 
short  address  prior  to  his  departure  for  the  prison,  that  he 
was  satisfied  both  with  his  own  conduct  and  with  the  result. 
The  divine  sign,  he  said,  which  was  wont  to  restrain  him, 
often  on  very  small  occasions,  both  in  deeds  and  in  words, 
had  never  manifested  itself  once  to  him  throughout  the 
.whole  day,  neither  when  he  came  thither  at  first,  nor  at 
any  one  point  throughout  the  whole  discourse.  The  tacit 
acquiescence  of  this  infallible  monitor  satisfied  him  not  only 
that  he  had  spoken  rightly,  but  that  the  sentence  passed  was 
in  reality  no  evil ;  that  to  die  now  was  the  best  thing  that 
could  befall  him.  Either  death  was  tantamount  to  a  sound, 
perpetual  and  dreamless  sleep,  which,  in  his  judgment,  would 
be  no  loss,  but  rather  a  gain  compared  with  the  present  life, 
or  else,  if  the  common  myths  were  true,  death  would  trans- 
fer him  to  a  second  life  in  Hades,  where  he  would  find  all 
the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war  and  of  the  past  generally,  so 
as  to  pursue  in  conjunction  with  them  the  business  of 
mutual  cross-examination  and  debate  on  ethical  progress  and 
perfection. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  sentence  really  appeared 
to  Socrates  in  this  point  of  view,  and  to  his  friends  also, 
after  the  event  had  happened — though  doubtless  not  at  the 
time  when  they  were  about  to  lose  him.  He  took  his  line  of 
defence  advisedly  and  with  fall  knowledge  of  the  result. 


148  EEADIKGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

It  supplied  him  with  the  fittest  of  all  opportunities  for 
manifesting  in  an  impressive  manner  both  his  personal 
ascendency  over  human  fears  and  weakness  and  the  dignity 
of  what  he  believed  to  be  his  divine  mission.  It  took 
him  away  in  his  full  grandeur  and  glory,  like  the  setting  of 
the  tropical  sun  at  a  moment  when  senile  decay  might  be 
looked  upon  as  close  at  hand.  He  calculated  that  his 
defence  and  bearing  on  the  trial  would  be  the  most  emphatic 
lesson  which  he  could  possibly  read  to  the  youth  of  Athens  ; 
more  emphatic,  probably,  than  the  sum  total  of  those  lessons 
which  his  remaining  life  might  suffice  to  give,  if  he  shaped 
his  defence  otherwise. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  Socrates  would  have  drunk 
the  cup  of  hemlock  in  the  prison  on  the  day  after  his  trial. 
But  it  so  happened  that  the  day  of  his  sentence  was  imme- 
diately after  that  on  which  the  sacred  ship  started  on  its 
yearly  ceremonial  pilgrimage  from  Athens  to  Delos  for  the 
festival  of  Apollo.  Until  the  return  of  this  vessel  to  Athens 
it  was  accounted  unholy  to  put  any  person  to  death  by 
pubhc  authority.  Accordingly  Socrates  remained  in  prison 
— and,  we  are  pained  to  read,  actually  with  chains  on  his  legs 
— during  the  interval  that  this  ship  was  absent — thirty  days 
altogether.  His  friends  and  companions  had  free  access  to 
him,  passing  nearly  all  their  time  with  him  in  prison,  and 
Crito  had  even  arranged  a  scheme  for  procuring  his  escape 
by  a  bribe  to  the  gaoler.  This  scheme  was  only  prevented 
from  taking  effect  by  the  decided  refusal  of  Socrates  to 
become  a  party  in  any  breach  of  the  law,  a  resolution  which 
we  should  expect  as  a  matter  of  course,  after  the  line  which 
he  had  taken  in  his  defence.  His  days  were  spent  in  the 
prison  in  discourse  respecting  ethical  and  human  subjects, 
which  had  formed  the  charm  and  occupation  of  his  previous 
life  5  it  is  to  the  last  of  these  days  that  his  conversation 


HEADINGS    IK    GREEK    HISTORY.  149 

with  Simmias  and  Phaedo  ou  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is 
referred  in  the  Platonic  dialogue  called  "  Phaedo."  Of  that 
conversation  the  main  topics  and  doctrines  are  Platonic 
rather  than  Socratic.  But  the  picture  which  the  dialogue 
presents  of  the  temper  and  state  of  mind  of  Socrates  during 
the  last  hours  of  his  life  is  one  of  immortal  beauty  and 
interest,  exhibiting  his  serene  and  even  playful  equanimity 
amid  the  uncontrollable  emotions  of  his  surrounding  friends, 
the  genuine  unforced  persuasion,  governing  both  his  words 
and  his  acts,  of  what  he  had  pronounced  before  the  Dicasts, 
that  the  sentence  of  death  was  no  calamity  to  him,  and  the 
unabated  maintenance  of  that  earnest  interest  in  the  im- 
provement of  man  and  society  which  had  for  so  many  years 
formed  both  his  paramount  motive  and  his  active  occupa- 
tion. The  details  of  the  last  scene  are  given  with  minute 
fidelity,  even  down  to  the  moment  of  his  dissolution,  and  it 
is  consoling  to  remark  that  the  cup  of  hemlock  (the  means 
employed  for  executions  by  public  order  at  Athens)  produced 
its  effect  by  steps  far  more  exempt  from  suffering  than  any 
natural  death  which  was  likely  to  befall  him.  Those  who 
have  read  what  has  been  observed  above  respecting  the 
strong  religious  persuasions  of  Socrates  will  not  be  surprised 
to  hear  that  his  last  words,  addressed  to  Crito  immediately 
before  he  passed  into  a  state  of  insensibility,  were  :  ''  Crito, 
we  owe  a  cock  to  ^sculapius ;  discharge  the  debt,  and  by  no 
means  omit  it." 

Thus  perished  the  "  parens  philosophise,"  the  first  of 
Ethical  philosophers,  a  man  who  opened  to  science  both 
new  matter,  alike  copious  and  valuable,  and  a  new  method, 
memorable  not  less  for  its  originality  and  efficacy  than  for 
the  profound  philosophical  basis  on  which  it  rests. — Grote. 

The  Expedition  of  Cyrus.— Ever  since  the  wars  with 


150  READINGS    IK    GREEK    HISTORY. 

Greece,  Persia  had  become  weaker  and  weaker,  and  its 
history  consists  of,  a  succession  of  revolts  in  Egypt  and 
other  provinces,  of  court  intrigues  and  cruel  punishments. 
Xerxes  was  murdered  in  b.  c.  465  by  Artabanus,  who 
occupied  the  throne  only  for  a  period  of  seven  months, 
and  was  succeeded  hy  Artaxerxes  I.,  surnamed  Longimanus, 
from  B.  c.  465  to  425.  His  successors,  Xerxes  II.,  reigned 
only  two  months,  and  Sogdianus  seven.  The  throne 
was  then  occupied  by  Darius  II.,  surnamed  Nothus,  who 
died  in  b.  c.  405,  leaving  behind  him  two  sons,  Cyrus  and 
Artaxerxes,  surnamed  Memnon,  who,  being  the  elder,  natu- 
rally succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne.  Cyrus  had  been 
appointed  by  his  father  governor  of  the  maritime  districts  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  having  formed  the  plan  of  placing  himself 
on  the  throne  with  the  aid  of  his  mother  Parysatis,  he  had 
formed  connections  with  Sparta,  and  enlisted  in  his  service 
malcontents  and  exiles  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  for  matters 
had  now  come  to  this,  that  Greeks  lent  their  swords  and 
arms  for  money  even  to  the  arch-enemy  of  their  own  country. 
Strengthened  by  such  Greeks,  and  being  plentifully  provided 
with  money,  he  undertook  an  expedition  against  his  brother, 
who  had  already  for  some  years  occupied  the  throne ;  but 
only  his  most  intimate  friends  knew  the  object  of  the  expedi- 
tion, Cyrus  making  the  army  believe  that  he  was  marching 
against  the  rebellious  Pisidians.  In  the  summer  of  b.  c.  401 
he  set  out  from  Sardis.  At  Thapsacus,  on  the  Euphrates, 
the  army  was  informed  that  they  were  marching  against 
the  King  of  Persia,  and  the  reluctance  of  the  soldiers  was 
overcome  only  by  increased  pay  and  liberal   promises. — 

SCHMITZ. 

Note.— In  the  plains  of  Babylonia,  at  a  place  called  Cunaxa,  Cyrus 
encountered  the  army  of  the  great  king. 


READINGS     IN     GREEK      HISTORY.  151 

Battle  of  Cunaxa. — In  a  characteristic  address,  Cyrus 
exhorted  the  Greeks  to  take  no  heed  of  the  multitude  of 
their  enemies ;  they  would  find  in  them,  he  affirmed,  nothing 
hut  numbers  and  noise,  and  if  they  could  bring  themselves  to 
despise  these  they  would  soon  find  of  what  worthless  stuff 
the  natives  were  composed.  The  army  then  marched  cau- 
tiously forward,  in  order  of  battle,  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  Euphrates.  They  soon  came  upon  a  huge  trench,  thirty 
feet  broad  and  eighteen  deep,  which  Artaxerxes  had  caused 
to  be  dug  across  the  plain  for  a  length  of  about  forty-two 
English  miles,  reaching  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  wall  of 
Media.  Between  it  and  the  river  was  left  only  a  narrow 
passage  about  twenty  feet  broad,  yet  Cyrus  and  his  army 
found  with  surprise  that  this  pass  was  left  entirely  un- 
guarded. This  circumstance  inspired  them  with  a  contempt 
of  the  enemy,  and  induced  them  to  proceed  in  careless 
array  ;  but  on  the  next  day  but  one  after  passing  the  trench, 
on  arriving  at  a  place  called  Cunaxa,  they  were  surprised 
with  the  intelligence  that  Artaxerxes  was  approaching  with 
all  his  forces.  Cyrus  immediately  drew  up  his  army  in  order 
of  battle.  The  Greeks  were  posted  on  the  right,  while 
Cyrus  himself,  surrounded  by  a  picked  body-guard  of  600 
Persian  cuirassiers,  took  up  his  station  in  the  center.  When 
the  enemy  was  about  half  a  mile  distant,  the  Greeks  charged 
them  with  the  usual  war-shout.  The  Persians  did  not  await 
their  onset,  but  turned  and  fled.  Tissaphernes  and  his 
cavalry  alone  offered  any  resistance ;  the  remainder  of  the 
Persian  left  was  routed  without  a  blow.  As  Cyrus  was  con- 
templating the  easy  victory  of  the  Greeks,  his  followers  sur- 
rounded him,  and  already  saluted  him  with  the  title  of  king. 
But  the  center  and  right  of  Artaxerxes  still  remained  un- 
broken ;  and  that  monarch,  unaware  of  the  defeat  of  his  left 
wing,  ordered  the  right  to  wheel  and  encompass  the  army  of 


162  READINGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY. 

Cyrus.  No  sooner  did  Cyrus  perceive  this  movement  than 
with  his  body-guard  he  impetuously  charged  the  enemy's 
center,  where  Artaxerxes  himself  stood,  surrounded  with 
6000  horse.  The  latter  were  routed  and  dispersed,  and  were 
followed  so  eagerly  by  the  guards  of  Cyrus,  that  he  was  left 
almost  alone  with  the  select  few  called  his  ^'  Table  Com- 
panions." In  this  "situation  he  caught  sight  of  his  brother 
Artaxerxes,  whose  person  was  revealed  by  the  fliglit  of  his 
troops,  when,  maddened  at  once  by  rage  and  ambition,  he 
shouted  out,  *'I  see  the  man  !"  and  rushed  at  him  with  his 
handful  of  companions.  Hurling  his  javelin  at  his  brother, 
he  wounded  him  in  the  breast,  but  was  himself  speedily  over- 
borne by  superior  numbers  and  slain  on  the  spot. 

Meanwhile,  Clearchus  had  pursued  the  flying  enemy  up- 
wards of  three  miles;  but,  hearing  that  the  king's  troops 
were  victorious  on  the  left  and  center,  he  retraced  his  steps, 
again  routing  the  Persians,  who  endeavored  to  intercept 
him.  When  the  Greeks  regained  their  camp  they  found 
that  it  had  been  completely  plundered,  and  were  conse- 
quently obliged  to  go  supperless  to  rest.  It  was  not  till  the 
following  day  that  they  learned  the  death  of  Cyrus ;  tidings 
which  converted  their  triumph  into  sorrow  and  dismay. — 
Smith. 

The  March  to  the  Sea. — [After  the  battle,  through 
the  treachery  of  Tissaphernes,  the  generals  of  the  Greeks 
were  entrapped  and  killed,  the  Persians  expecting  by  this 
move  to  completely  demoralize  the  main  body  of  the  troops.] 

The  Persians  had  thought  that  the  power  of  the  Greeks 
lay  only  in  the  generals.  They  were  wholly  mistaken.  For 
the  moment,  indeed,  there  was  universal  depression.  Scarcely 
a  man  in  the  army  closed  his  eyes  in  sleep,  and  among  these 
weary  watchers  whose  thoughts  were  running  on  kinsfolk 


READINGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY.  153 

and  friends  whom  they  dared  not  hope  to  see  again,  was  the 
Athenian  Xenophon.  Having  joined  as  a  simple  volunteer, 
he  had  no  official  rank  ;  but  none  the  less  the  common  peril 
pressed  heavily  on  his  heart.  "Why  do  I  lie  here?"  he 
asked  himself.  "  The  night  is  creeping  on.  The  morning 
will  bring  the  enemy,  and  defeat  will  be  followed  by  tortures 
and  death.  Yet  here  all  lie,  as  though  it  were  a  time  for 
rest,  and  am  I  to  wait  until  some  officer  comes  forward  to 
give  counsel  and  to  act  ?  "  Rising  up  hastily,  and  summon- 
ing the  captains  who  had  served  under  his  friend  Proxenos, 
Xenophon,  with  manly  courage  and  good  sense,  told  them 
that,  on  the  whole,  the  present  state  of  things  was  better 
than  that  which  had  preceded  it.  The  treaty  made  with 
Tissaphernes  had  hampered  and  clogged  them ;  the  treacheiy 
by  which  the  Persians  had  broken  the  compact  had  at  least' 
left  them  free.  For  himself,  he  was  willing,  he  added,  either 
to  follow  or  to  lead.  One  voice  only  was  raised  against  the 
general  shout  which  summoned  Xenophon  to  take  the  com- 
mand, and  that  voice  was  justly  disregarded.  The  others 
went  throughout  the  army,  summoning  the  officers  who  had 
not  followed  Clearchos  into  the  snare.  When  these  were 
gathered,  midnight  had  already  come.  At  the  request  of  the 
Eleian  Hieronymos,  Xenophon  again  addressed  them. 

He  told  his  colleagues  that  if  they  had  behaved  as  brave 
men  while  they  were  seeking  to  place  Cyrus  on  the  Persian 
throne,  their  duty  was  increased  tenfold  now  that  the  safety 
of  the  whole  army  was  at  stake.  They  must  show  the 
Persians,  not  only  that  they  mean  to  go  home,  but  that  they 
are  fully  able  to  carry  out  their  purpose.  Time  pressed  ; 
they  must  hasten  away.  To  do  so  with  the  greatest  chance 
of  success,  they  must  have  as  few  incumbrances  as  possible. 
The  wagons  and  all  superfluous  baggage  must  be  burned,  so 
as  to  leave  the  largest  number  of  soldiers  available  for  action. 


154  READINGS     11^     GREEK     HISTORY. 

The  effect  of  these  energetic  counsels  was  seen  when,  on  the 
aiTival  of  another  Persian  deputation,  the  heralds  were  sent 
away  unheard. 

The  Greeks  now  crossed  the  Zab ;  but  they  had  not  ad- 
vanced far  when  they  were  attacked  by  a  force  of  slingers 
and  mounted  bowmen,  whose  weapons  went  much  farther 
than  those  of  the  archers  and  javelin-men  in  the  army  of  the 
Greeks.  An  attempt  to  repel  them  by  an  attack  of  hoplites 
ended  in  severe  loss;  but  Xenophon  took  on  himself  the 
full  discredit  of  the  defeat,  and  urged  the  formation  of  a 
new  force  of  Rhodian  archers  and  of  cavahy,  who  might  be 
supplied  with  such  horses  as  could  be  spared  from  indispen- 
sable service  as  baggage-carriers. 

When,  on  the  following  day,  the  attack  was  renewed, 
many  of  the  assailants  were  slain,  and  tlie  Greeks,  to  frighten 
the  enemy  more  thorouglily,  hacked  and  mutilated  their 
bodies.  But  the  march  of  the  Greeks  was  still  perilous  and 
toilsome  ;  nor  could  anything  have  brought  them  safely 
through,  had  not  Xenophon  acquired  over  them  a  moral 
ascendency  which  called  forth  an  obedience  highly  creditable 
to  men  so  situated.  The  real  struggle  came  when,  about 
fifty  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Great  Zab  River,  they  ap- 
proached the  rocks  and  defiles  which  sheltered  the  fastnesses 
of  the  Cardouchian  mountaineers.  In  these  fierce  hill-men, 
still  known  as  Kurds,  they  encountered  enemies  very  differ- 
ent from  the  Persians  whose  despot  reigned  only  over  the 
plains.  Here  there  was  nothing  to  save  them  from  destruc- 
tion but  a  swiftness  of  movement  which  should  put  them  in 
possession  of  one  commanding  height  after  another  before 
the  barbarians  could  reach  them.  In  each  instance  the  feat 
was  successfully  accomplished.  Nor  was  this  the  only  diffi- 
culty with  which  they,  had  to  contend.  The  table-lands  of 
Armenia  stand  high  up  among  the  mighty  chains  of  moun- 


READIiq-GS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY.  155 

tains  which  rise  into  their  most  tremendous  masses  between 
the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian  seas.  These  bare  regions  are 
exposed  to  merciless  winds  and  fearful  snow-storms ;  and  the 
Greeks  were  crossing  them  in  the  depth  of  winter.  But,  in 
spite  of  all  obstacles,  they  not  only  held  on,  but  struck  hard 
blows  at  their  enemies.  The  successful  crossing  of  the 
Euphrates,  not  far  from  its  source,  was  followed  by  a  terrible 
tempest. 

When  the  storm  subsided,  the  snow  was  six  feet  deep. 
The  enemy  was  close  behind  them,  and  might  fall  at  any 
moment  on  their  sick.  By  a  feigned  attack  Xenophon 
fri^-htened  off  the  natives  in  the  rear;  and  in  the  head-man 
of  a  village  where  they  found  both  food  and  quarters  he 
obtained  a  guide  whose  services  were  lost  to  them  a  week 
later  by  the  imprudence  of  Oheirisophos.  The  Spartan 
leader  had  allowed  the  man  to  walk  unbound,  and  had 
struck  him  for  his  failure  to  bring  them  to  fresh  villages. 
The  head-man  naturally  ran  off  during  the  night,  and  the 
Greeks  made  their  way  as  they  could  to  a  stream,  which  they 
crossed  only  to  find  themselves,  somewhat  farther  on,  face  to 
face  with  the  tribesmen  who  blocked  the  pass  to  the  plain 
beyond.  Xenophon,  how^ever,  found  means  to'carry  it  with- 
out a  direct  encounter,  and  five  more  marches  brought  them 
to  a  stronghold,  in  which  the  Taochi  had  gathered  their 
women,  their  children,  and  their  cattle.  The  cattle  seized  in 
this  fastness  supplied  the  army  with  food  till  they  reached 
the  river  Harpasus,  after  the  passage  of  which  four  marches 
brought  them  to  the  large  and  flourishing  city  Gymnias.  A 
guide  sent  to  them  by  the  head-man  of  this  place  undertook 
to  bring  them  within  five  days  to  the  sight  of  the  sea.  He 
kept  his  word,  and  on  the  fifth  day  the  mountain  called 
Theche  rose  before  them.  As  the  foremost  men  reached  the 
summit,  they  saw  far  away  the  waters  of  the  Euxine  stretch- 


156  READIKGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY. 

ing  out  into  the  blue  distance.  The  shout  of  joy  with 
which  they  greeted  the  longed-for  sight  swelled  to  tumult  as 
others  hurried  up  after  them.  To  Xenophon  the  din 
seemed  to  betoken  a  sudden  onslaught  of  enemies.  Hur- 
riedly mounting  his  horse  he  spurred  on  with  the  cavalry. 
As  he  approached  the  summit,  he  could  distinguish  the 
exulting  cry,  "  The  sea!  the  sea ! "  which  seemed  to  give  the 
assurance  that  their  long  toil  was  already  ended.  Officers 
and  men  threw  themselves  into  each  others'  arms,  and  as  the 
baggage  train  came  up,  and  all  were  now  in  safety,  a  sudden 
impulse  drove  the  soldiers  to  gather  stones,  and  a  mighty 
cairn  was  raised  to  mark  the  spot  where  the  sea  greeted  the 
Ten  Thousand  on  their  wonderful  march  from  the  plains  of 
Babylon. — Cox. 

Battle  of  Cnidus. — It  was  about  the  month  of  July, 
394  B.  c,  that  Pharnabazus  and  Conon  brought  their  united 
fleet  to  the  southwestern  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  first,  prob- 
ably, to  the  friendly  island  of  Rhodes,  next  off  Loryma  and 
the  mountain  called  Dorion  on  the  peninsula  of  Cnidus. 
Pisander,  with  the  fleet  of  Sparta  and  her  alHes,  sailed  out 
from  Cnidus  to  meet  them,  and  both  parties  prepared  for  a 
battle.  The  numbers  of  the  Lacedaemonians  are  reported  by 
Diodorus  eighty-five  triremes;  those  of  Conon  and  Pharna- 
bazus at  above  ninety.  But  Xenophon,  without  particular- 
izing the  number  on  either  side,  seems  to  intimate  the 
disparity  as  far  greater,  stating  that  the  entire  fleet  of 
Pisander  was  considerably  inferior  even  to  the  Grecian  divi- 
sion under  Conon  without  reckoning  the  Phoenician  ships 
under  Pharnabazus.  In  spite  of  such  inferiority,  Pisander 
did  not  shrink  from  the  encounter.  Though  a  young  man 
without  military  skill  he  possessed  a  full  measure  of  Spartan 
courage  and  pride ;  moreover,  since  the  Spartan  maritime 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  157 

empire  was  only  maintained  by  the  assumed  superiority  of  his 
fleet,  had  he.  confessed  himself  too  weak  to  fight,  his  enemies 
would  have  gone  unopposed  round  the  islands  to  excite  revolt. 
Accordingly  he  sailed  forth  from  the  harbor  of  Cnidus.  But 
when  the  two  fleets  were  ranged  opposite  to  each  other  and 
the  battle  was  about  to  commence,  so  manifest  and  alarming 
was  the  superiority  of  the  Athenians  and  Persians,  that  his 
Asiatic  allies  on  the  left  division,  no  way  hearty  in  the  cause, 
fled  almost  without  striking  a  blow.  Under  such  discourag- 
ing circumstances  he  nevertheless  led  his  fleet  into  action 
with  the  greatest  valor.  But  his  trireme  was  overwhelmed 
by  numbers,  broken  in  various  places  by  the  beaks  of  the 
enemy's  ships,  and  forced  back  upon  the  land,  together  with 
a  large  portion  of  his  fleet.  Many  of  the  crews  jumped  out 
and  got  to  land,  abandoning  their  triremes  to  the  conquerors. 
Pisander,  too,  might  have  escaped  in  the  same  way  ;  but 
disdaining  either  to  survive  his  defeat  or  to  quit  his  ship, 
fell  gallantly  fighting  aboard.  The  victory  of  Conon  and 
Pharnabazus  was  complete.  More  than  half  of  the  Spartan 
ships  was  either  captured  or  destroyed,  though  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  land  enabled  a  large  proportion  of  the  crews 
to  escape  to  Cnidus,  so  that  no  great  number  of  prisoners 
were  taken.  Among  the  allies  of  Sparta,  the  chief  loss  of 
course  fell  upon  those  who  were  most  attached  to  her  cause ; 
the  disaffected  or  lukewarm  were  those  who  escaped  by  flight 
at  the  beginning. 

Such  was  the  memorable  triumph  of  Conon  at  Cnidus ; 
the  reversal  of  that  of  Lysander  at  ^gospotami  eleven 
years  before. — Grote. 

Battle  of  Coronea. — Agesilaus  approached  the  plain  of 
Coronea  from  the  river  Cephissus,  while  the  Thebans  met 
him  from  the  direction  of  Mount  Helicon.     He  occupied  the 


158  KEADIKGS     Iiq^     GKEEK     HISTORY. 

right  wing  of  his  army,  the  Orchomenians  being  on  the  left, 
and  the  Cyreians,  with  the  Asiatic  alhes,  in  the  center.  In 
the  opposite  line,  the  Thebans  were  on  the  right  and  the 
Argeians  on  the  left.  Both  armies  approached  slowly  and  in 
silence  until  they  were  separated  only  by  an  interval  of  a 
furlong,  at  which  moment  the  Thebans  on  the  right  began 
the  war-shout,  and  accelerated  their  march  to  a  run,  the 
rest  of  the  line  following  their  example.  When  they  got 
within  half  a  furlong  of  the  Lacedaemonians  the  center  divi- 
sion of  the  latter,  under  the  command  of  Herippidas  (com- 
prising the  Cyreians,  with  Xenophon  himself,  and  the 
Asiatic  allies)  started  forward  on  their  side  and  advanced  at  a 
run  to  meet  them,  seemingly  getting  beyong  their  own  line 
and  coming  first  to  cross  spears  with  the  enemy's  center. 
After  a  sharp  struggle,  the  division  of  Herippidas  was  here 
victorious,  and  drove  back  its  opponents. 

Agesilaus,  on  his  right,  was  yet  more  victorious,  for  the 
Argeians  opposed  to  him  fled  without  even  crossing  spears. 
These  fugitives  found  safety  on  the  high  ground  of  Mount 
Helicon.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Thebans  on  their 
own  right  completely  beat  back  the  Orchomenians,  and  pur- 
sued them  so  far  as  to  get  to  the  baggage  in  the  rear  of  the 
army.  Agesilaus,  while  his  friends  around  were  congratu- 
lating him  as  conqueror,  immediately  wheeled  round  to 
complete  his  victory  by  attacking  the  Thebans,  who  on  their 
side  also  faced  about,  and  prepared  to  fight  their  way,  in 
close  and  deep  order,  to  rejoin  their  comrades  on  Helicon. 
Though  Agesilaus  might  have  let  them  pass  and  assailed 
them  in  the  rear  "with  greater  safety  and  equal  effect,  he  pre- 
ferred the  more  honorable  victory  of  a  conflict  face  to  face. 
Such  is  the  coloring  which  his  panegyrist,  Xenophon,  puts 
upon  his  manoeuvre.  Yet  we  may  remark  that  if  he  had  let 
the  Thebans  pass,  he  could  not  have  pursued   them  far, 


READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY.  159 

seeiug  that  their  own  comrades  were  at  hand  to  sustain 
them,  and  also  that,  having  never  yet  fought  against  the 
Thebans,  he  had  probably  no  adequate  appreciation  of  their 
powers. 

The  crash  which  now  took  place  was  something  terrific 
beyond  all  Grecian  miUtary  experience,  leaving  an  iiidelible 
impression  upon  Xenophon,  who  was  personally  engaged  in  it. 
The  hoplites  on  both  sides  came  to  the  fiercest  and  closest 
bodily  struggle,  pushing  shields  against  each  other  with  all 
the  weight  of  the  incumbent  mass  behind  impelling  forward 
the  foremost  ranks,  especially  in  the  deep  order  of  the 
Thebans.  The  shields  of  the  foremost  combatants  were  thus 
stove  in,  their  spears  broken,  and  each  man  was  engaged  in 
such  close  embrace  with  his  enemy,  that  the  dagger  was  the 
only  weapon  which  he  could  use.  There  was  no  systematic 
shout  such  as  usually  marked  the  charge  of  a  Grecian  army  ; 
the  silence  was  only  broken  by  a  medley  of  furious  exclama- 
tions and  murmurs.  Agesilaus  himself,  who  was  among  the 
front  ranks,  and  whose  size  and  strength  were  by  no  means 
on  a  level  with  his  personal  courage,  had  his  body  covered 
with  wounds  from  different  weapons,  was  trodden  down,  and 
only  escaped  by  the  devoted  courage  of  those  fifty  Spartan 
volunteers  who  formed  his  body-guard.  Partly  from  his 
wounds,  partly  from  the  irresistible  courage  and  stronger 
pressure  of  the  Thebans,  the  Spartans  were  at  length  com- 
pelled to  give  way,  so  far  as  to  afford  a  free  passage  to  the 
former,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  march  onward  and  rejoin 
their  comrades,  not  without  sustaining  some  loss  by  attacks 
on  their  rear. 

Agesilaus  thus  remained  master  of  the  field  of  battle, 
having  gained  a  victory  over  his  opponents  taken  collectively. 
But  so  far  as  concerns  the  Thebans  separately,  he  had  not 
only  gained  no  victory,  but  had  failed  in  his  purpose  of 


160  READINGS     IK     GREEK     HISTORY. 

stopping  their  progress,  and  had  had  the  worst  of  the  com- 
bat. His  wounds  having  been  dressed,  he  was  brought  back 
on  men's  shoulders  to  give  his  final  orders,  and  was  then  in- 
formed that  a  detachment  of  eighty  Theban  hoplites,  left 
behind  by  the  rest,  had  taken  refuge  in  the  temple  of 
Itonian  Athene  as  suppliants.  From  generosity,  mingled 
with  respect  to  the  sanctity  of  the  spot,  he  commanded  that 
they  should  be  dismissed  unhurt,  and  then  proceeded  to  give 
directions  for  the  night-watch,  as  it  was  already  late.  The 
field  of  battle  presented  a  terrible  spectacle.  Spartan  and 
Theban  dead  lying  intermingled,  some  yet  grasping  their 
naked  daggers,  others  pierced  with  the  daggers  of  their 
enemies  ;  around  on  the  blood-stained  ground  were  seen 
broken  spears,  smashed  shields,  swords  and  daggers  scattered 
apart  from  their  owners.  He  directed  the  Spartan  and 
Theban  dead  to  be  collected  in  separate  heaps  and  placed 
in  safe  custody  for  the  night,  in  the  interior  of  his 
phalanx  ;  the  troops  then  took  their  supper  and  rested 
for  the  night.  On  the  next  morning  Gylis,  the  Pole- 
march,  was  ordered  to  draw  up  the  army  in  battle  aiTay, 
to  erect  a  trophy,  and  to  offer  sacrifices  of  cheerfulness  and 
thanksgiving,  with  the  pipers  solemnly  playing,  according  to 
Spartan  fashion.  Agesilaus  was  anxious  to  make  these 
demonstrations  of  victory  as  ostentatious  as  possible,  because 
he  really  doubted  whether  he  had  gained  a  victory.  It  was 
very  possible  that  the  Thebans  might  feel  confidence  enough 
to  renew  the  attack  and  try  to  recover  the  field  of  battle 
with  their  own  dead  upon  it,  which  Agesilaus  had  for  that 
reason  caused  to  be  collected  in  a  separate  heap  and  placed 
within  the  Lacedaemonian  lines.  He  was,  however,  soon 
relieved  from  doubt  by  a  herald  coming  from  the  Thebans  to 
solicit  the  customary  truce  for  the  burial  of  their  dead — the 
understood  confession  of  defeat.     The  request  was  immedi- 


READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY.  161 

ately  granted  ;  each  party  paid  the  last  solemnity  to  its  own 
dead,  and  the  Spartan  force  was  then  withdrawn  from 
Boeotia.  Xenophon  does  not  state  the  loss  on  either  side,  but 
Diodorus  gives  it  as  GOO  on  the  side  of  the  confederates,  350 
on  that  of  the  Lacedaemonians. — Grote. 

The  Battle  of  Leuctra. — The  forces  on  each  side  arc 
not  accurately  known,  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  The- 
bans  were  outnumbered  by  the  Lacedaemonians.  The  mili- 
tary genius  of  Eparainondas,  however,  compensated  any 
inferiority  of  numbers  by  novelty  of  tactics.  Up  to  this 
time  Grecian  battles  had  been  uniformly  conducted  by  a 
general  attack  in  line.  Epaminondas  now  first  adopted  the 
manoeuvre  used  with  such  success  by  Napoleon  in  modern 
times,  of  concentrating  heavy  masses  on  a  given  point  of  the 
enemy's  array.  Having  formed  his  left  wing  into  a  dense 
column  of  fifty  deep,  so  that  its  depth  was  greater  than  its 
front,  he  directed  it  against  the  Lacedaemonian  right,  con- 
taining the  best  troops  in  their  army,  drawn  up  twelve  deep, 
and  led  by  Cleombrotus  in  person.  Meanwhile  the  Theban 
center  and  right  were  ordered  to  be  kept  out  of  action  and 
in  readiness  to  support  the  advance  of  the  left  wing.  The 
battle  began  with  skirmishes  of  cavalry  in  front,  in  which  the 
Lacedaemonian  horse  were  soon  driven  in.  The  Theban  left, 
the  Sacred  Band,  with  Pelopidas  at  their  head,  leading  the 
van,  now  fell  with  such  irresistible  weight  on  the  Lace- 
daemonian right  as  to  bear  down  all  opposition.  The  shock 
was  terrible.  Cleombrotus  himself  was  mortally  wounded  in 
the  onset,  and  with  difficulty  carried  off  by  his  comrades. 
Numbers  of  his  officers,  as  well  as  of  his  men,  were  slain, 
and  the  whole  wing  was  broken  and  driven  back  to  the 
camp.  On  no  other  part  of  the  line  was  there  any  serious 
fighting,  partly  owing  to  the  disposition  made  by  Epami- 


162  KEADINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

nondas  and  partly  to  the  lukewarmness  of  the  Spartan  allies, 
who  occupied  the  center  and  part  of  the  right  wing.  The 
loss  of  the  Thebans  was  small  compared  with  that  of  the 
Lacedaemonians.  Out  of  700  Spartans  in  the  army  of  the 
latter,  400  had  fallen  ;  and  their  king  also  had  been  slain, 
an  event  which  had  not  occurred  since  the  fatal  day  of  Ther- 
mopylae. Many  of  their  allies  hardly  concealed  the  satis- 
faction which  they  felt  at  their  defeat,  whilst  so  great  was 
the  depression  among  the  Lacedaemonians  themselves,  that 
very  few  were  found  bold  enough  to  propose  a  renewal  of 
the  combat,  in  order  to  recover  the  bodies  of  the  slain.  The 
majority  decided  that  a  truce  should  be  solicited  for  that 
purpose.  But,  though  the  bodies  of  the  fallen  were  given 
up,  their  arms  were  retained,  and  five  centuries  afterwards 
the  shields  of  the  principal  Spartan  officers  were  seen  at 
Thebes  by  the  traveler  Pausanias. — Smith. 

Battle  of  Cynoscephalce. — It  was  in  the  same  year 
(b.  c.  363)  that  Pelopidas  led  an  expedition  into  Thessaly 
against  Alexander  of  Pherae.  Strong  complaints  of  the 
tyranny  of  that  despot  arrived  at  Thebes,  and  Pelopidas, 
who  probably  also  burned  to  avenge  his  private  wrongs,  pre- 
vailed upon  the  Thebans  to  send  him  into  Thessaly  to 
punish  the  tyrant.  The  forces  he  had  collected  were  far 
inferior  to  those  of  Alexander,  and  when  informed  at  Phar- 
salus  that  the  tyrant  was  advancing  towards  him  with  a 
great  army,  he  remarked  that  it  was  so  much  the  better, 
since  there  would  be  more  for  him  to  conquer.  The  battle 
was  fought  on  the  hills  of  Cynoscephalae ;  the  troops  of 
Alexander  were  routed,  and  Pelopidas,  observing  his  hated 
enemy  endeavoring  to  rally  them,  was  seized  with  such  a 
transport  of  rage  that,  regardless  of  his  duties  as  a  general, 
he  rushed  impetuously  forwards  and  challenged  him  to  a 


READIIfGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  163 

single  combat.  Alexander  shrunk  back  within  the  ranks  of 
his  guards,  followed  impetuously  by  Pelopidas,  who  w^as  soon 
slain  fighting  with  desperate  bravery.  Although  the  army 
of  Alexander  was  defeated  with  severe  loss,  the  news  of  the 
death  of  Pelopidas  deprived  the  Thebans  and  their  Thes- 
sahan  allies  of  all  the  joy  which  they  would  otherwise  have 
felt  at  their  victory.  The  Thebans,  however,  subsequently 
avenged  the  death  of  their  general  by  sending  a  fresh  force 
of  7000  hoplites  into  Thessaly,  with  which  they  compelled 
Alexander  to  relinquish  all  his  dependencies  in  that  country, 
to  confine  himself  to  the  actual  limits  of  Pherae,  and  to 
swear  allegiance  to  Thebes.  The  Thebans  thus  acquired 
greater  influence  than  they  had  ever  before  enjoyed  in 
Northern  Greece. — Smith. 

Death  of  Epaminondas. — In  regard  to  this  important 
battle,*  however,  we  cannot  grasp  with  confidence  anything 
beyond  the  capital  determining  feature  and  the  ultimate 
result.  The  calculations  of  Epaminondas  were  completely 
realized.  The  iiTcsistible  charge,  both  of  'infantry  and 
cavalry,  made  by  himself  with  his  left  w^ing,  not  only  de- 
feated the  troops  immediately  opposed,  but  caused  the 
enemy's  whole  army  to  take  flight.  It  was  under  these 
victoinous  circumstances,  and  while  he  was  pressing  on  the 
retiring  enemy  at  the  head  of  his  Theban  column  of  in- 
fantry, that  he  received  a  mortal  wound  with  a  spear  in  the 
breast.  He  was,  by  habit  and  temper,  always  foremost  in 
braving  danger,  and  on  this  day  probably  exposed  himself 
pre-eminently  as  a  means  of  encouraging  those  around  him, 
and  insuring  the  success  on  which  so  much  depended;  more- 
over, a  Grecian  general,  on  foot  in  the  ranks,  and  carried 
the  same  arms   (spear,   shield,   etc.)   as   a  private  soldier. 

*Mnntiiiea  fonsht  b.  c.  362. 


164  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

Diodorus  tells  us  that  the  Laceclgemonian  infantry  were 
making  a  prolonged  resistance,  when  Epaminondas  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  Thebans  for  a  fresh  and  desperate 
effort;  that  he  stepped  forward,  darted  his  javelin,  and  slew 
the  Lacedgemonian  commander ;  that  having  killed  several 
warriors,  and  intimidated  others,  he  forced  them  to  give 
way ;  that  the  Lacedaemonians,  seeing  him  in  advance  of  his 
comrades,  turned  upon  him  and  overwhelmed  him  with 
darts,  some  of  which  he  avoided,  others  he  turned  off  with 
his  shield,  while  others,  after  they  had  actually  entered  his 
body  and  wounded  him,  he  plucked  out  and  employed  them 
in  repelling  the  enemy.  At  length  he  received  a  mortal 
wound  in  his  breast  with  a  spear.  I  cannot  altogether  omit 
to  notice  these  details,  which  once  passed  as  a  portion  of 
Grecian  history,  though  they  seem  rather  the  offspring  of  an 
imagination  fresh  from  the  perusal  of  the  Iliad  than  a  recital 
of  an  actual  combat  of  Thebans  and  LacedaBmonians,  both 
eminent  for  close-rank  fighting,  with  long  spear  and  heavy 
shield.  The  mortal  wound  of  Epaminondas,  with  a  spear  in 
the  breast,  is  the  only  part  of  the  case  which  we  really  know. 
The  handle  of  the  spear  broke,  and  the  point  was  left  stick- 
ing in  his  breast.  He  immediately  fell,  and  as  the  enemy 
were  at  that  moment  in  retreat,  fell  into  the  arms  of  his  own 
comrades.  There  was  no  dispute  for  the  possession  of  his 
body,  as  there  had  been  for  Cleombrotus  at  Leuctra. 

The  surgeons,  on  examining  the  wound  of  Epaminondas, 
with  the  spear-head  yet  sticking  in  it,  pronounced  that  he 
must  die  as  soon  as  that  was  withdrawn.  He  first  inquired 
whether  his  shield  was  safe,  and  his  shield-bearer,  answering 
in  the  affirmative,  produced  it  before  his  eyes.  He  next 
asked  about  the  issue  of  the  battle,  and  was  informed  that 
his  own  army  was  victorious.  He  then  desired  to  see  lolaidas 
and  Daiphantus,  whom  he  intended  to  succeed  him  as  com- 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  165 

manders ;  but  received  the  mournful  reply,  that  both  of  them 
had  been  slain.  ''  Then,"  said  he,  ''  you  must  make  peace 
with  the  enemy."  He  ordered  the  spear-head  to  be  with- 
drawn, when  the  efflux  of  blood  speedily  terminated  his  Ufe. 
Scarcely  any  character  in  Grecian  history  has  been 
judged  with  so  much  unanimity  as  Epaminondas.  He 
obtained  a  meed  of  admiration — from  all,  sincere  and  hearty, 
from  some  enthusiastic.  Cicero  pronounced  him  to  be  the 
first  man  of  Greece.  The  judgment  of  Polybius,  though  not 
summed  up  so  emphatically  in  a  single  epithet,  is  delivered 
in  a  manner  hardly  less  significant  and  laudatory.  Nor  was 
it  merely  historians  or  critics  who  formed  this  judgm.ent. 
The  best  men  of  action,  combining  the  soldier  and  the 
patriot,  such  as  Timoleon  and  Philopoemen,  set  before  them 
Epaminondas  as  their  model  to  copy. — Grote. 

Characterization  of  Philip.— The  youthful  Philip  was 
one  of  the  hostages  deUvered  to  the  Thebans  as  security  for 
the  peace  effected  by  Pelopidas.  ^His  residence  at  Thebes 
gave  him  some  tincture  of  Grecian  philosophy  and  literature. 
It  seems  probable  that  he  made  the  personal  acquaintance  of 
Plato,  and  he  undoubtedly  acquired  that  command  over  the 
Greek  language  which  put  him  on  a  level  with  the  best 
orators  of  the  day.  But  the  most  important  lesson  which  he 
learned  at  Thebes  was  the  art  of  war  with  all  the  improved 
tactics  introduced  by  Epaminondas.  At  the  time  of 
Philip's  residence,  moreover,  Thebes  was  the  center  of 
political  interest,  and  he  must  accordingly  have  had  oppor- 
tunities to  become  intimately  acquainted  with  the  views  and 
policy  of  the  various  Grecian  powers.  The  genius  and 
character  of  Philip  were  well  calculated  to  derive  advantage 
from  these  opportunities.  He  had  great  natural  acuteness 
and  sagacity,  so  as  to  perceive  at  a  glance  the  men  to  be 


IGG  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

employed  and  the  opportunities  to  be  improved.  His  bound- 
less ambition  was  seconded  by  an  iron  will,  which  no  danger 
could  daunt  and  no  repulse  dishearten;  and  when  he  had 
once  formed  a  project  he  pursued  it  with  untiring  and  resist- 
less energy.  His  handsome  person,  spontaneous  eloquence, 
and  apparently  frank  deportment,  were  of  great  assistance  to 
him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  schemes;  whilst  under  these 
seducing  qualities  lurked  no  inconvenient  morality  to  stand 
between  his  desires  and  their  gratification.  Corruption  was 
his  instrument  as  frequently  as  force ;  and  it  was  one  of  his 
favorite  boasts  that  he  had  taken  more  towns  with  silver 
than  with  iron.  Yet  when  force  was  necessary  no  man  could 
wield  it  better;  for  with  the  skill  of  a  general  he  united  a 
robustness  of  constitution  which  enabled  him  to  bear  all  the 
hardships  of  a  campaign  as  well  as  the  meanest  soldier. 
Such  was  the  man  who,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  assumed 
the  government  of  Macedonia. — Smith. 

Demosthenes. — Throughout  the  whole  career  of  Demos- 
thenes as  a  public  adviser,  down  to  the  battle  of  Chaeroneia, 
we  trace  the  same  combination  of  earnest  patriotism  with 
wise  and  long-sighted  policy.  During  the  three  years' 
war,  which  ended  with  the  battle  of  Chaeroneia,  the  Athe- 
nians in  the  main  followed  his  counsel,  and,  disastrous  as 
were  the  ultimate  niilitary  results  of  that  war,  for  which 
Demosthenes  could  not  be  responsible,  its  earlier  periods 
were  creditable  and  successful,  its  general  scheme  was  the 
best  that  the  case  admitted,  and  its  diplomatic  management 
universally  triumphant.  But  what  invests  the  purposes  and 
policy  of  Demosthenes  with  peculiar  grandeur  is,  that  they 
were  not  simply  Athenian,  but  in  an  eminent  degree  Pan- 
Hellenic  also.  It  was  not  Athens  alone  that  he  sought  to 
defend  against  Philip,  but  the  whole  Hellenic  world.    In  this 


READINGS  IN  GREEK  HISTORY.      107 

he  towers  above  the  greatest  of  his  predecessors  for  half  a 
century  before  his  birth — Pericles,  Archidamus,  Agesilaus, 
Epaminondas,  whose  policy  was  Athenian,  Spartan,  Theban 
rather  than  Hellenic.  He  carries  us  back  to  the  time  of  the 
invasion  of  Xerxes  and  the  generation  immediately  succeed- 
ing it,  when  the  struggles  and  sufferings  of  the  Athenians 
against  Persia  were  consecrated  by  complete  identity  of 
interest  with  collective  Greece.  The  sentiments  to  which 
Demosthenes  appeals  throughout  his  numerous  orations  are 
those  of  the  noblest  and  largest  patriotism,  trying  to  inflame 
the  ancient  Grecian  sentiment  of  an  autonomous  Hellenic 
world  as  the  indispensable  condition  of  a  dignified  and 
desirable  existence ;  but  inculcating  at  the  same  time  that 
these  blessings  could  only  be  preserved  by  toil,  self-sacrifice, 
devotion  of  fortune,  and  willing  to  brave  hard  and  steady 
personal  service. — Gbote. 

Last  Days  of  Ol3mthus.— But  at  last  even  Athens 
seemed  aware  of  her  danger.  In  349  she  not  only  inter- 
vened in  Euboea,  but  actually  sent  a  citizen  force  to  Olyn- 
thus,  which  had  some  success,  and  averted  the  ruin  of  the 
city  for  another  year.  But  it  was  only  for  a  time.  In  spite 
of  the  efforts  which,  all  too  late,  the  Athenians  were  now 
ready  to  make  (and  we  know  from  Demosthenes  that  Athens 
helped  Olynthus,  first  and  last,  with  as  many  as  4,000 
citizens,  10,000  mercenaries,  and  50  triremes) — in  spite  of 
all,  Philip,  by  force  of  arms  or  corruption,  gained  step  by 
step,  first  one  city,  then  another,  until  Olynthus,  the  last 
hope  of  Hellenic  freedom  in  the  north,  stood  quite  alone,  and 
prepared  to  fight  her  last  battle  for  independence  with  fruit- 
less despair.  Even  Athens  could  now  do  little  to  help. 
The  north  wind,  as  usual,  befriended  Philip,  and  when  the 
reinforcements  from  the  south  arrived  it  was  too  late.    Olyn- 


168  READINGS     11^     GREEK     HISTORY. 

thus  herself  had  fallen.  The  gold  of  Macedon  completed 
what  Athenian  remissness  had  begun.  Two  cavalry  officers 
betrayed  a  large  part  of  their  force  to  the  enemy.  All  heart 
was  taken  out  of  the  besieged  by  the  treason  of  the  Philip- 
pizers  within.  Further  resistance  was  impossible.  And 
then  there  fell  upon  Hellas  a  blow  perhaps  more  awful  than 
anything  in  her  previous  history.  A  free  city  of  10,000 
inhabitants  and  thirty-two  of  her  free  allies  were  so  ruth- 
lessly destroyed  that  a  chance  traveler  would  not  even  have 
been  aware  of  the  ruins  beneath  his  feet. 

They  vanished  from  the  Hellenic  world  as  though  they 
had  never  been.  Still  worse  was  the  fate  which  befell  the 
inhabitants.  They  were  exiled  or  sold  into  slavery.  It  is 
pathetic  even  now  to  read  of  the  scene  which  moved 
^schines  himself  to  tears  when  "he  met  a  certain  Atres- 
tidas  coming  from  Macedon,  and  in  his  train  were  marching 
some  thirty  women  and  children ;  and  when  he  asked  in 
astonishment  who  the  man  was  and  the  people  with  him, 
one  of  the  passers-by  answered  that  they  were  slaves  from 
Olynthus,  whom  Philip  had  given  to  his  friend  Atrestidas." 
If  we  think  of  the  change  for  these  poor  creatures,  from  the 
life  of  free  and  happy  liberty  to  slavery  and  all  that  slavery 
involves,  we  shall  realize  better  the  awful  shock  which  the 
sack  of  Olynthus  gave  to  the  Hellenic  world.  It  was  notjso 
much  that  Philip  became  at  once  lord  of  an  empire  reaching 
from  the  Chersones  to  Thermopylae,  dominating  men's  imagi- 
nations as  Eussia  dominates  them  now,  but  that  it  suddenly 
changed,  as  it  were,  the  balance  of  men's  minds  (as  Kussia's 
conquest  of  Constantinople  might  change  it  now),  blinded 
their  eyes,  disturbed  their  judgment,  and  turned  even 
honorable  politicians  into  timid,  if  not  corrupt,  worshipers 
of  the  rising  sun.  Subsequent  events  can  only  be  read 
aright  in  the  light  of  the  fall  of  Olynthus. — Curteis. 


li  E  A  D  I  N  G  S     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  169 

Causes  of  the  Sacred  War. — In  the  year  357  b.  c,  a 

second  attempt  was  made  by  Thebes  to  employ  the  authority 
of  the  Amphictyouic  assembly  as  a  means  of  crushing  her 
neighbors  the  Phocians.  The  latter  had  been,  from  old 
time,  border  enemies  of  the  Thebans,  Locrians,  and  Thes- 
salians.  Until  the  battle  of  Leuctra  they  had  fought  as 
allies  of  Sparta  against  Thebes,  but  had  submitted  to 
Thebes  after  that  battle,  and  continued  to  be  her  allies, 
though  less  and  less  cordial,  until  the  battle  of  Mantineia 
and  the  death  of  Epaminondas.  Since  that  time,  the  old 
antipathy  appears  to  have  been  rekindled,  especially  on  the 
part  of  Thebes.  Irritated  against  the  Phocians,  probably  as 
having  broken  off  from  a  sworn  alliance,  she  determined  to 
raise  against  them  an  accusation  in*  the  Amphictyonic 
assembly.  As  to  the  substantive  ground  of  accusation  we 
find  different  statements.  According  to  one  witness  they 
were  accused  of  having  cultivated  some  portion  of  the 
Cirrhaean  plain,  consecrated  from  of  old  to  Apollo ;  accord- 
ing to  another,  they  were  charged  with  an  aggressive  inva- 
sion of  Boeotia;  while,  according  to  a  third,  the  war  was 
caused  by  their  having  carried  off  Theano,  a  married  The- 
ban  woman.  Pausanias  confesses  that  he  cannot  distinctly 
make  out  what  was  the  allegation  against  them.  Assisted 
by  the  antipathy  of  the  Thessalians  and  Locrians,  not  less 
vehement  than  her  own,  Thebes  had  no  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing sentence  of  condemnation  against  the  Phocians.  A  fine 
was  imposed  upon  them,  of  what  amount  we  are  not  told, 
but  so  heavy  as  to  be  far  beyond  their  means  of  payment. 

It  was  thus  that  the  Thebans,  who  had  never  been  able  to 
attach  to  themselves  a  powerful  confederacy,  such  as  that 
which  formerly  held  its  meetings  at  Sparta,  supplied  the 
deficiency  by  abusing  their  ascendency  in  the  Amphictyonic 
assembly  to  procure  vengeance  upon  political  enemies.     A 


170  READIis^GS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

certain  time  was  allowed  for  liquidating  the  fine,  which  the 
Phocians  had  neither  means  nor  inclination  to  do.  Com- 
plaint of  the  fact  was  then  made  at  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Amphictyons,  when  a  decisive  resolution  was  adopted,  and 
engraved  along  with  the  rest  on  a  column  in  the  Delphian 
temple,  to  expropriate  the  recusant  Phocians  and  consecrate 
all  their  territory  to  Apollo,  as  Cirrha  with  its  fertile  plain 
had  been  treated  two  centuries  before.  It  became  necessary, 
at  the  same  time,  for  the  maintenance  of  consistency  and 
equal  dealing,  to  revive  the  mention  of  the  previous  fine  still 
remaining  unpaid  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  against  whom  it 
was  accordingly  proposed  to  pass  a  vote  of  something  like 
excommunication. 

Death  of  Philip. — [Pausanias  had  been  cruelly  outraged 
by  Attains,  and  had  no  means  of  redress.]  He  complained 
to  Philip  in  person.  According  to  one  account,  Philip  put 
aside  the  complaint  with  evasions,  and  even  treated  it  with 
ridicule  ;  according  to  another  account,  he  expressed  his 
displeasure  at  the  act,  and  tried  to  console  Pausanias  by 
pecuniary  presents.  But  he  granted  neither  redress  nor 
satisfaction  to  the  sentiment  of  an  outraged  man.  Accord- 
ingly Pausanias  determined  to  take  revenge  for  himself.  In- 
stead of  revenging  himself  on  Attains,  who,  indeed,  was  out 
of  his  reach,  being  at  the  head  of  the  Macedonian  troops  in 
Asia,  his  wrath  fixed  upon  Philip  himself,  by  whom  the 
demand  for  redress  had  been  refused.  It  appears  that  this 
turn  of  sentiment,  diverting  the  appetite  for  revenge  away 
from  the  real  criminal,  was  not  wholly  spontaneous  on  the 
part  of  Pausanias,  but  was  artfully  instigated  by  various 
party  conspirators  who  wished  to  destroy  Philip.  The 
enemies  of  Attalus  and  Queen  Cleopatra  (who  herself  is 
said  to  have  treated  Pausanias  with  insult),  being  of  course 


READINGS    IK    GREEK    HISTORY.  171 

also  partisans  of  Olympias  and  Alexander,  were  well  dis- 
posed to  make  use  of  the  maddened  Pausanias  as  an  instru- 
ment, and  to  direct  his  exasperation  against  the  king.  He 
had  poured  forth  his  complaints  both  to  Olympias  and  to 
Alexander  ;  the  former  is  said  to  have  worked  him  up 
vehemently  against  her  late  husband,  and  even  the  latter 
repeated  to  him  a  verse  out  of  Euripides,  wherein  the  fierce 
Medea,  deserted  by  her  husband  Jason,  who  had  married  the 
daughter  of  the  Corinthian  king  Creon,  vows  to  include  in 
her  revenge  the  king  himself,  together  with  her  husband 
and  his  new  wife.  That  the  vindictive  Olympias  would  posi- 
tively spur  on  Pausanias  to  assassinate  Philip  is  highly  prob- 
able. Eespecting  Alexander,  though  he  also  was  accused, 
there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  to  warrant  a  similar  assertion  ; 
but  that  some  among  his  partisans — men  eager  to  consult 
his  feelings  and  to  insure  his  succession — lent  their  encour- 
agements, appears  tolerably  well  established.  A  Greek 
sophist  named  Hermocrates  is  also  said  to  have  contributed 
to  the  deed,  though  seemingly  without  intention,  by  his 
conversation,  and  the  Persian  king  (an  improbable  report) 
by  his  gold. 

Unconscious  of  the  plot,  Philip  was  about  to  enter  the 
theatre,  already  crowded  with  spectators.  As  he  approached 
the  door,  clothed  in  a  white  robe,  he  felt  so  exalted  with 
impressions  of  his  own  dignity,  and  so  confident  in  the 
admiring  sympathy  of  the  surrounding  multitude,  that  he 
advdnced  both  unarmed  and  unprotected,  directing  his 
guards  to  hold  back.  At  this  moment  Pausanias,  standing 
near  with  a  G  allic  sword  concealed  under  his .  garment, 
rushed  upon  him,  thrust  the  weapon  through  his  body,  and 
killed  him.  Having  accomplished  his  purpose,  the  assassin 
immediately  ran  off  and  tried  to  reach  the  gates,  where  he 
had  previously  caused  horses  to  be  stationed.     Being  strong 


172  READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

and  active,  he  might  have  succeeded  in  effecting  his  escape 
— like  most  of  the  assassins  of  Jason  of  Pherae  under  circum- 
stances very  similar — had  not  his  foot  stumbled  amid  some 
vinestocks.  The  guards  and  friends  of  PhiUp  were  at  first 
paralyzed  with  astonishment  and  consternation.  At  length, 
however,  some  hastened  to  assist  the  dying  king,  while 
others  rushed  in  pursuit  of  Pausanias.  Leonnatus  and 
Perdiccas  overtook  him  and  slew  him  immediately. — Grotk. 

Youth  of  Alexander. — The  history  of  heroes  is  the 
history  of  youth,  it  has  been  said,  and  Alexander  displayed 
not  a  few  of  the  qualities  which  the  world  agrees  to  call 
heroic.  It  would  be  premature  to  dwell  at  length  upon  the 
character  and  exploits  which  are  to  develop  themselves  in 
the  following  pages,  yet  as  Alexander  resembled  Napoleon 
and  many  another  great  man  in  the  fact  that  extraordinary 
success  spoiled  a  really  great  character,  it  will  be  well  to 
touch  briefly  on  some  of  the  stories  which  have  come  down 
to  us  of  his  early  years,  his  habits,  and  his  education.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  impetuous,  fanatical  Olympias,  a  fact 
which  itself  explains  half  the  eccentricities  and  violent  deeds 
of  which  he  was  guilty  when  his  head  was  turned  by  adula- 
tions. Three  successive  messengers  on  one  day,  it  was  said, 
brought  his  father  Philip  the  good  news  that  Parmeon  had 
defeated  the  Illyrians,  that  his  horse  had  been  victorious  at 
Olympias,  and  that  his  wife  had  given  birth  to  a  son.  From 
early  years  the  boy  showed  signs  of  a  marked  individuality, 
whicli  was  trained  and  cultivated  by  the  best  teachers  of  the 
day — notably,  from  the  age  of  thirteen  to  sixteen,  by  the 
famous  Aristotle,  from  whom  he  gained  a  special  taste  for 
medical  science  and  natural  history,  and  a  general  liking  for 
knowledge  of  all  sorts.  He  was  an  adept  in  music,  and 
when  only  eleven  years  old  played  the  lyre  in  public  before 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  173 

the  Athenian  ambassadors,  who  were  at  Pella  in  346.  Of 
books,  he  loved  the  Iliad  best,  even  keeping  a  copy  by  his 
side  at  night  with  his  sword,  and  of  all  the  characters  he 
admired  most  that  of  Achilles.  If  he  surpassed  his  compeers 
in  general  intelligence,  he  was  not  less  manly  than  they,  but 
loved  hunting  and  fencing,  and  was  so  bold  a  rider  as  to~ 
manage  even  the  spirited  Bucephalus,  whom  no  man  before 
had  dared  to  ride.  Indeed,  he  had  the  tenderness  for  animals 
characteristic  of  all  fine  natures,  loving  dog  and  horse  as 
faithful  friends.  Plutarch  even  asserts  that  when  Bucephalus 
once  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  tribe  on  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian,  Alexander  was  inconsolable,  threatening  fire  and 
sword  and  utter  extermination  unless  his  favorite  were  re- 
stored, and  that  he  called  a  city  by  his  name  when  he  died 
of  fatigue  after  the  battle  with  Poros.  In  person  Alexander 
was  of  a  fair  and  ruddy  complexion,  and  of  middle  height ; 
he  had  bright,  expressive  eyes,  and  a  strange  trick  of  holding 
his  head  on  one  side,  which  his  generals  and  courtiers 
imitated.  His  temper,  if  hot,  was  generous,  and  found 
expression  in  remarks  and  repartees,  often  wise,  sometimes 
witty,  always  frank.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  remarkable  that, 
considering  who  he  was,  and  the  atmosphere  in  which  he 
lived,  his  life  was  singularly  pure  and  simple,  and  that  in 
circumstances  of  more  than  ordinary  temptation  his  treat- 
ment of  women  was  considerate  and  even  chivalrous.  To 
those  around  him  he  was,  with  rare  exceptions,  a  constant 
and  liberal  friend,  and  many  a  story  is  told  of  his  magnani- 
mous self-control,  both  towards  his  enemies  and  his  soldiers, 
graphic  enough  to  account  for  the  admiring  affection  which 
they  often  showed.  On  the  whole,  we  gather  the  idea  of  a 
young  man,  superior  to  his  father,  both  in  character  and 
abilities,  frank,  passionate,  ambitious,  yet  singularly  self- 
restrained  ;  and  all  the  more  shall  we  lament,  therefore,  the 


174  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

downward  progress  of  such  a  youth  into  a  manhood  dis- 
figured hj  acts  of  cruelty  and  by  excessive  vanity. — Grote. 

Destruction  of  Thebes. — When,  a  little  while  after  his 
glorification  at  Corinth,  Alexander  set  out  on  an  expedition 
across  the  mighty  barrier  of  the  Balkan  range,  he  disappeared 
from  the  world  of  the  Greeks.  Silence  led  to  rumors  of  his 
defeat,  and  the  rumors  of  defeat  were  followed  by  more 
.confident  assertions  of  his  death.  At  Thebes  and  at  Athens 
the  tidings  were  received  by  some  with  eager  belief.  The 
covenant  made  with  Alexander  was  made  only  with  him 
personally.  The  Theban  exiles  at  Athens  were  anxious  to 
repeat  the  attempt  which,  half  a  century  earlier,  had  been 
made  against  the  Spartan  garrison  of  the  Cadmea  by  Pelopi- 
das,  and  with  help  in  arms  and  money  from  Demosthenes 
and  other  Athenians  they  entered  Thebes,  obtained  from  the 
assembly  a  declaration  of  its  autonomy,  and  summoned  the 
garrison  in  the  citadel  to  surrender.  The  answer  was  a 
blank  refusal,  and  a  double  line  of  circumvallation  was 
drawn  around  the  Cadmea,  while  envoys  were  sent  to  call 
forth  aid  from  every  quarter.  The  belief  in  Alexander's 
death  was  dispelled,  not  by  any  gradual  reports  of  his  escape 
from  the  barbarians,  but  suddenly  by  his  own  appearance  at 
the  Boeotian  Onchestos.  He  had  just  defeated  his  enemies 
when  he  heard  of  the  revolt  of  Thebes,  and  he  determined 
to  smite  the  rebels  without  turning  aside  to  take  even 
a  clay's  rest  at  Pella.  Within  a  fortnight  he  had  occupied 
the  pass  of  Thermopylae,  and  two  days  later  his  army  was 
encamped  on  the  southern  side  of  Thebes,  thus  cutting  off 
all  chances  of  aid  from  Athens.  It  was  his  wish  to  avoid  an 
assault,  and  he  contented  himself  with  demanding  the  sur- 
render of  two  only  of  the  anti-Macedonian  leaders,  offering 
to  re-admit  the  rest   to  the  convention   made  at  Corinth 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  175 

during  the  preceding  year.  The  citizens  generally  were 
anxious  to  submit,  but  the  exiles  felt  or  feared  themselves 
to  be  too  deeply  committed,  and  the  answer  took  the  form  of 
a  defiance  accompanied  by  a  demand  for  the  surrender  of 
Antipatros  and  Philotas.  They  had  sealed  their  own  doom. 
Personal  bravery  was  of  no  use  against  the  discipline,  the 
numbers,  and  the  engines  of  the  enemy.  The  defenders 
were  driven  back  into  the  city ;  the  invaders  burst  in  with 
them,  and  the  slaughter  which  followed  w^as  by  no  means 
inflicted  by  the  Macedonians  alone.  The  Platseans,  Thes- 
pians, and  Orchomenians  felt  that  they  had  old  scores  to 
settle.  To  their  decision  and  to  that  of  the  rest  of  his  Greek 
allies  Alexander  submitted  the  treatment  of  the  city.  The 
sentence  was  promptly  pronounced.  The  measure  which  the 
Thebans  would  have  dealt  out  to  Athens  on  its  surrender  to 
Lysander  should  now  be  dealt  out  to  themselves.  The 
walls  and  every  building  within  them  were  to  be  rased  to 
the  ground  ;  its  territory  was  to  be  shared  by  the  allies ;  the 
whole  people  (priest  and  priestesses,  with  the  Proxenoi  or 
friends  of  the  Macedonians  being  the  only  exceptions)  were 
to  be  sold  as  slaves,  and  such  as  had  escaped  were  to  be  pro- 
nounced outlaws,  whom  no  Greek  city  should  dare  to  harbor. 
As  they  had  said,  so  was  it  done  ;  the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar 
alone  being  spared  from  demolition,  and  his  descendants 
alone  being  allowed  to  retain  their  freedom.  It  was  con- 
venient for  Arrian  to  say  that  this  frightful  havoc  was 
wrought  not  by  Alexander,  but  by  his  Greek  allies.  The 
jackals  had  done  the  lion's  work ;  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  they  had  done  it  precisely  as  he  wished  it  to  be 
done.  His  end  was  gained.  The  spirit  of  the  Greeks  was 
crushed.  A  great  city  was  blotted  out,  and  the  worship  of 
its  gods  was  ended  with  its  ruin.  These  gods  were  in  due 
time,  it  was  believed,  to  take  vengeance  on  the  conqueror. 


176  EEADINGSIN-     GREEK     HISTORY. 

Dionysus,  the  lord  of  the  wine-cup  and  the  revel,  the  special 
guardian  and  patron  of  the  Theban  city  and  land,  was  not 
to  be- defied  and  insulted  with  impunity,  and  his  hand  was 
seen  in  the  awful  crimes  committed  in  the  far  East  by  the 
drunken  madman  whose  victories  had  led  him  to  believe  in 
his  own  divinity. — Cox. 

Battle  of  the  Granicus.— Alexander  distributed  his 
orders;  a  dreadful  silence  ensued  ;  the  hostile  armies  beheld 
each  other  with  resentment  or  terror.  This  solemn  pause 
was  interrupted  by  the  Macedonian  trumpet,  which,  on  a 
signal  given  by  Alexander,  resounded  from  every  part  of  the 
line.  His  brother  Ptolemy,  as  had  been  previously  regulated, 
then  rode  forth  at  the  head  of  a  squadron  of  cuirassiers,  fol- 
lowed by  two  bodies  of  light  dragoons  and  a  battalion  ^of 
infantry,  commanded  by  Amyntas.  While  these  troops  boldly 
entered  the  Granicus,  Alexander  likewise  advanced  with  the 
chosen  cavalry  on  the  right  wing,  followed  by  the  archers 
and  Agrians.  In  passing  the  river,  both  Alexander  and 
Ptolemy  led  their  troops  obliquely  down  the  current,  to  pre- 
vent as  much  as  possible  the  Persians  from  attacking  in 
flank  as  they  successively  reached  the  shore.  The  Persian 
cavalry  behaved  with  courage ;  the  first  squadrons  of  the 
Macedonians  were  driven  back  into  the  stream.  But  Alex- 
ander, who  animated  the  companions  with  his  voice  and 
arm,  maintained  his  ground  on  the  bank,  and  thought  he 
had  gained  the  battle  when  he  obtained  an  opportunity  of 
fighting.  In  the  equestrian  engagement  which  followed, 
the  Macedonians  owed  much  to  their  skilful  evolutions  and 
discipline,  still  more  to  their  strength  and  courage,  and  not 
little  to  the  excellence  of  their  weapons,  which,  being  made 
of  the  cornel-tree,  far  surpassed  the  brittle  javelin  of  the 
enemy. 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  177 

Meanwhile,  Parmenio  crossed  the  Granicus  at  the  head  of 
the  left  wing  with  equal  success  but  unequal  glory,  because 
Alexander  had  already  proved,  by  his "  example,  that  the 
difficulty  might  be  overcome  which  would  have  otherwise 
appeared  insurmountable.  The  attention  of  the  enemy  was 
so  deeply  engaged  by  the  successive  attacks  of  the  cavalry 
that  they  seem  not  to  have  made  much  opposition  to  the 
passage  of  the  phalanx.  But  before  this  powerful  body  of 
infantry  had  crossed  the  river  the  Macedonian  horse  had 
already  reaped  the  fairest  honors  of  the  field.  Alexander 
animated  them  by  his  presence,  and,  after  performing  all  the 
duties  of  a  great  general,  displayed  such  personal  acts  of 
prowess  as  will  be  more  readily  admired  than  believed  by  the 
modern  reader.  But  in  the  close  combats  of  antiquity  the 
forces,  once  thoroughly  engaged,  might  be  safely  left  to  the 
direction  of  their  own  resentment  and  courage,  while  the 
commanders  displayed  the  peculiar  accomplishments  to 
which  they  had  been  trained  from  their  youth  in  the  more 
conspicuous  parts  of  the  field.  Alexander  was  easily  distin- 
guished by  the  brightness  of  his  armor  and  the  admirable 
alacrity  of  his  attendants.  The  bravest  of  the  Persian 
nobles  impatiently  waited  his  approach.  He  darted  into  the 
midst  of  them  and  fought  till  he  broke  his  spear.  Having 
demanded  a  new  weapon  from  Aretes,  his  master  of  horse. 
Aretes  showed  him  his  own  spear,  which  likewise  was 
broken.  Demaratus,  the  Corinthian,  supplied  the  king  with 
a  weapon.  Thus  armed,  he  rode  up  and  assaulted  Mifchri- 
dates,  son-in-law  of  Darius,  who  exulted  before  the  hostile 
ranks.  While  Alexander  beat  him  to  the  ground,  he  was 
himself  struck  by  Esesaces  with  a  hatchet.  His  helmet 
saved  his  life.  He  pierced  the  breast  of  Raesaces;  but  a 
new  danger  threatened  him  from  the  scimitar  of  Spithri- 
dates.     The  instrument  of  death  already  descended  on  his 


178  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

head  when  CHtus  cut  off  the  arm  of  Spithridates,  which  fell 
with  the  grasped  weapon. 

The  heroism  of  Alexander  animated  the  valor  of  the  Com- 
panions, and  the  enemy  first  fled  where  the  king  commanded 
in  person.  .  In  the  left  wing,  the  Grecian  cavalry  must  have 
behaved  with  distinguished  merit,  since  the  Persians  had 
begun  on  every  side  to  give  way  before  the  Macedonian 
infantry  had  completely  passed  the  river.  The  stern  aspect 
of  the  phalanx,  shining  in  steel  and  bristling  with  spears, 
confirmed  the  victory.  Above  a  thousand  Persian  horse 
were  slain  in  the  pursuit.  The  foot,  consisting  chiefly  in 
Greek  mercenaries,  still  continued  in  their  first  position,  not 
firm  but  inactive,  petrified  by  astonishment,  not  steady 
through  resolution.  While  the  phalanx  attacked  them  in 
front,  the  victorious  cavalry  assailed  their  flanks.  Sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  they  fell  an  easy  prey ;  two  thousand 
surrendered  prisoners,  the  rest  all  perished,  unless  a  few 
stragglers  perchance  lurked  among  the  slain.— Gillies. 

The  Gordian  Knot. — It  was  about  Februaiy  or  March, 
333  B.  c,  when  Alexander  reached  Gordium,  where  he  ap- 
pears to  have  halted  for  some  time,  giving  to  the  troops  who 
had  been  with  him  in  Pisidia  a  repose,  doubtless  needful. 
"While  at  Gordium  he  performed  the  memorable  exploit 
familiarly  known  as  the  cutting  of  the  Gordian  knot. 

There  was  preserved  in  the  citadel  an  ancient  wagon  of 
rude  stmcture,  said  by  the  legend  to  have  once  belonged  to 
ihe  peasant  Gordius  and  his  son  Midas,  the  primitive  rustic 
kings  of  Phrygia,  designated  as  such  by  the  gods,  and 
chosen  by  the  people.  The  cord  (composed  of  fibers  from 
the  bark  of  the  cornel-tree)  attaching  the  yoke  of  this 
wagon  to  the  pole  was  so  twisted  and  entangled  as  to  form 
a  knot  of  singular  complexity,  which  no  one  had  ever  been 


KEADINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  179 

able  to  untie.  An  oracle  had  pronounced  that  to  the  person 
who  should  untie  it  the  empire  of  Asia  was  destined.  When 
Alexander  went  up  to  see  this  ancient  relic,  the  surrounding 
multitude,  Phrygian  as  well  as  Macedonian,  were  full  of 
expectation  that  the  conqueror  of  the  Granicus  and  of  Hali- 
carnassus  would  overcome  the  difficulties  of  the  knot,  and 
acquire  the  promised  empire.  But  Alexander,  on  inspecting 
the  knot,  was  as  much  perplexed  as  others  had  been  before 
him,  until  at  length,  in  a  fit  of  impatience,  he  drew  his 
sword  and  severed  the  cord  in  two.  By  every  one  this  was 
accepted  as  a  solution  of  the  problem,  thus  making  good  his 
title  to  the  empire  of  Asia,  a  belief  which  the  gods  ratified 
by  a  storm  of  thunder  and  lightning  during  the  ensuing 
night. — Grote. 

Battle  of  Issus. — In  the  spring  of  333  Alexander  pur- 
sued his  march  eastwards,  and  on  arriving  at  Ancyra  received 
the  submission  of  the  Paphlagonians.  He  then  advanced 
through  Cappadocia  without  resistance ;  and  forcing  his  way 
through  the  passes  of  Mount  Taurus  (the  Pylce  Gilicice),  he 
descended  into  the  plains  of  Cilicia.  Hence  he  pushed  on 
rapidly  to  Tarsus,  which  he  found  abandoned  by  the  enemy. 
Whilst  still  heated  with  the  march,  Alexander  plunged  into 
the  clear  but  cold  stream  of  the  Cydnus,  which  runs  by  the 
town.  The  result  was  a  fever,  which  soon  became  so  violent 
as  to  threaten  his  life.  An  Acarnanian  physician,  named 
Philip,  who  accompanied  him,  prescribed  a  remedy;  but,  at 
the  same  time,  Alexander  received  a  letter  informing  him 
that  Philip  had  been  bribed  by  Darius,  the  Persian  king,  to 
poison  him.  He  had,  however,  too  much  confidence  in  the 
trusty  Philip  to  believe  the  accusation,  and  handed  him  the 
letter  whilst  he  drank  the  draught.  Either  the  medicine  or 
'Alexander's  youthful  constitution,  at  length  triumphed  over 


180  READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

the  disorder.  After  remaining  some  time  at  Tarsus,  he  con- 
tinued his  march  along  the  coast  to  Mallus,  where  he  first 
received  certain  tidings  of  the  great  Persian  army,  com- 
manded by  Darius  in  person.  It  is  said  to  have  consisted  of 
600,000  fighting  men,  besides  all  that  train  of  attendants 
which  usually  accompanied  the  march  of  a  Persian  monarch. 
Alexander  found  Darius  encamped  near  Issus,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  little  river  Pinarus.  The  Persian  king  could 
hardly  have  been  caught  in  a  more  unfavorable  position, 
since  the  narrow  and  rugged  plain  between  Mount  Amanus 
and  the  sea  afibrded  no  scope  for  the  evolutions  of  large 
bodies,  and  thus  entirely  deprived  him  of  the  advantage  of 
his  numerical  superiority.  Alexander  occupied  the  pass 
between  Syria  and  Cilicia  at  midnight,  and  at  daybreak 
began  to  descend  into  the  plain  of  the  Pinarus,  ordering  his 
troops  to  deploy  into  line  as  the  ground  expanded,  and  thus 
to  arrive  in  battle-array  before  the  Persians.  Darius  had 
thrown  30,000  cavalry  and  20,000  infantry  across  the  river 
to  check  the  advance  of  the  Macedonians;  whilst  on  the 
right  bank  were  drawn  up  his  choicest  Persian  troops  to  the 
number  of  60,000,  together  with  30,000  Greek  mercenaries, 
who  formed  the  centre,  and  on  whom  he  chiefly  relied. 
These,  it  appears,  were  all  that  the  breadth  of  the  plain 
allowed  to  be  drawn  up  in  line.  The  remainder  of  the  vast 
host  were  posted  in  separate  bodies  in  the  farther  parts  of 
the  plain,  and  were  unable  to  take  any  share  in  the  combat. 
Darius  placed  himself  in  the  centre  of  the  line  in  a  magni- 
ficent state  chariot.  The  banks  of  the  Pinfirus  were  in  many 
parts  steep,  and  where  they  were  level  Darius  had  caused 
them  to  be  intrenched.  As  Alexander  advanced,  the  Per- 
sian cavalry  which  had  been  thrown  across  the  river  were 
recalled ;  but  the  20,000  infantry  had  been  driven  into  the 
mountains,  where  Alexander  held   them  in  check  with  a 


READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY.  181 

small  body  of  horse.  The  left  wing  of  the  Macedonians, 
under  the  command  of  Parmenio,  was  ordered  to  keep  near 
the  sea,  to  prevent  being  outflanked.  The  right  wing  was 
led  by  Alexander  in  person,  who  rushed  impetuously  into 
the  water,  and  was  soon  engaged  in  close  combat  with  the 
Persians.  The  latter  were  immediately  routed ;  but  what 
chiefly  decided  the  fortune  of  the  day  was  the  timidity  of 
Darius  himself,  who,  on  beholding  the  defeat  of  his  left 
wing,  immediately  took  to  flight.  His  example  was  followed 
by  his  whole  army.  One  hundred  thousand  Persians  are 
said  to  have  been  left  upon  the  field.  On  reaching  the  hills 
Darius  threw  aside  his  royal  robes,  his  bow  and  shield,  and, 
mounting  a  fleet  courser,  was  soon  out  of  reach  of  pursuit. 
The  Persian  camp  became  the  spoil  of  the  Macedonians ; 
but  the  tent  of  Darius,  together  with  his  chariot,  robes,  and 
arms,  was  reserved  for  Alexander  himself.  It  was  now  that 
the  Macedonian  king  first  had  ocular  proof  of  the  nature  of 
Eastern  royalty.  One  compartment  of  the  tent  of  Darius 
had  been  fitted  up  as  a  bath,  which  steamed  with  the  richest 
odors,  whilst  another  presented  a  magnificent  pavihon, 
containing  a  table  richly  spread  for  the  banquet  of  Darius. 
But  from  an  adjoining  tent  issued  the  wail  of  female  voices, 
where  Sisygambis,  the  mother,  and  Statira,  the  wife  of 
Darius,  were  lamenting  the  supposed  death  of  the  Persian 
monarch.  Alexander  sent  to  assure  them  of  his  safety,  and 
ordered  them  to  be  treated  with  the  most  delicate  and 
respectful  attention. — Smith. 

The  Fall  of  Tyre.— [Alexander  had  pushed  the  siege 
of  Tyre  for  seven  months,  and  having  erected  a  causeway 
between  the  mainland  and  the  city,  determined  upon  a  gen- 
eral assault.] 

The  safety  of  the  city  now  rested  chiefly  in  the  strength  of 


182  READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

its  walls.  Even  these,  after  several  fruitless  attempts  Lad 
been  made  in  other  quarters,  began  to  give  way  on  the  south 
side ;  and  a  breach  was  opened,  which  Alexander  tried,  but 
did  not  find  immediately  practicable.  Three  days  after,  how- 
ever, when  a  calm  favored  the  approach  of  the  vessels,  he 
gave  orders  for  a  general  attack.  It  was  to  be  made  on  all 
sides  at  once,  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  besieged,  and 
the  fleet  was  at  the  same  time  to  sail  up  to  both  the  harbors,  in 
the  hope  that  in  the  midst  of  the  tumult  it  might  force  an 
entrance  into  one  of  them.  But  the  main  assault  was 
directed  against  the  breach  that  had  been  already  formed. 
The  vessels  which  bore  the  engines  were  first  brought  up  to 
play  upon  it,  and  when  it  had  been  sufiiciently  widened  were 
followed  by  two  galleys,  with  landing-boards  and  the  men 
who  were  to  mount  it.  One  was  commanded  by  Admetus, 
and  was  filled  with  troops  of  the  guard,  and  in  this  Alex- 
ander himself  embarked.  The  other  bore  a  detachment  of 
the  phalanx  belonging  to  the  division  commanded  by  Ooenus. 
Admetus  and  his  men  were  the  first  to  effect  a  landing, 
animated  by  the  immediate  presence  ot  their  king,  who, 
after  he  had  paused  awhile  to  observe  and  animate  the 
exertions  of  his  warriors,  himself  mounted  the  breach. 
When  the  Macedonians  had  once  gained  a  firm  footing,  the 
issue  of  the  conflict,  notwithstanding  the  desperate  resist- 
ance of  the  besieged,  did  not  long  remain  doubtful.  Adme- 
tus, indeed,  who  led  the  way,  was  slain ;  but  Alexander 
made  himself  master  of  two  towers  and  the  intervening 
curtain,  through  which  the  troops  from  the  other  vessel 
poured  in  after  him,  and  he  then  advanced  along  the  walls 
to  the  royal  palace,  which  stood  on  the  highest  ground,  that 
he  might  descend  from  it  with  the  greater  ease  into  the 
heart  of  the  city.  The  Tyrians,  seeing  the  wall  taken, 
abandoned  their  fortifications,  and  collected  their  forces  in 


READINGS     IK     GREEK      HISTORY.  183 

one  of  the  public  places,  where  they  gallantly  made  head 
against  their  assailants.  But  in  the  meanwhile,  both  the 
harbors  had  been  forced,  their  ships  sunk  or  driven  ashore, 
and  the  besiegers  landed  to  join  their  comrades  in  the  city. 
It  soon  became  a  scene  of  unresisted  carnage  and  plunder. 
The  Macedonians,  exasperated  by  the  length  and  labors  of 
the  siege,  which  had  lasted  seven  months,  and  by  the  execu- 
tion of  their  comrades,  spared  none  that  fell  into  their 
hands.  The  king,  whom  the  Greeks  call  Azelmicus,  with 
the  principal  inhabitants  and  some  Carthagenian  envoys  who 
had  been  sent  with  the  usual  offerings  to  Melcart,  took 
ref  nge  in  his  sanctuary,  and  these  alone,  according  to  Arrian, 
were  exempted  from  the  common  lot  of  death  or  slavery.  It 
was  an  act  of  clemency,  by  which  the  conqueror  at  the  same 
time  displayed  his  piety  to  the  god.  Of  the  rest,  8000  per- 
ished in  the  first  slaughter,  and  30,000,  including  a  number 
of  foreign  residents,  were  sold  as  slaves.  But,  if  we  may 
believe  Curtius,  15,000  were  rescued  by  the  Sidonians,  who 
first  hid  them  in  their  galleys,  and  afterward  transported 
them  to  Sidon,  not,  it  must  be  presumed,  without  Alex- 
ander's connivance  or  consent. 

So  fell  Tyre,  the  rich,  and  beautiful,  and  proud,  in  arts  and 
arms  the  queen  of  merchant  cities.  The  conqueror  celebrated 
his  victory  with  a  solemn  military  and  naval  procession,  sacri- 
fice, and  games,  in  honor  of  the  tutelary  god  who  had  thus 
fulfilled  his  promise,  and,  though  after  the  labor  of  so  many 
months,  had  at  length  brought  him  into  his  city.  He  dedi- 
cated the  engine  which  had  first  shattered  the  wall,  and  the 
sacred  galley  in  the  sanctuary  of  Melcart.  Tyre  was  still 
occupied  as  a  fortress,  and  soon  recovered  some  measure 
of  her  ancient  prosperity,  which  it  preserved  for  some 
centuries  under  the  shade  of  the  Roman  empire ;  and,  after 
a  period  of  almost  utter  desolation,  seems  again  to  be  lifting 


184  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY, 

Up  her  head,  tliough  in  a  very  humble  condition,  in  onr 
days.  But  Alexander's  work,  which  changed  her  island 
into  a  peninsula,  put  an  end  for  ever  to  her  power  and 
independence,  and  is  now  almost  the  only  monument  re- 
maining of  her  ancient  greatness. — -Thirwall. 

Battle  of  Arbela. — ^Alexander  returned  to  Phoenicia  in 
the  spring  of  331.  He  then  directed  his  march  through 
Samaria,  and  arrived  at  Thapsacus  on  the  Euphrates  about 
the  end  of  August.  After  crossing  the  river,  he  struck  to 
the  northeast  through  a  fertile  and  well-supplied  country. 
On  his  march  he  was  told  that  Darius  was  posted  with  an 
immense  force  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris  ;  but  on  arriv- 
ing at  that  river  he  found  nobody  to  dispute  his  passage.  He 
then  proceeded  southwards  along  its  banks,  and,  after  four 
days'  march,  fell  in  with  a  few  squadrons  of  the  enem/s 
cavalry.  From  some  of  these,  who  were  made  prisoners, 
Alexander  learned  that  Darius  was  encamped  with  his  host 
on  one  of  the  extensive  plains  between  the  Tigris  and  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  near  a  village  called  Gaugamela 
(the  Camel's  House).  The  town  of  Arbela,  after  which  the 
battle  that  ensued  is  commonly  named,  lay  at  about  twenty 
miles  distance,  and  there  Darius  had  deposited  his  baggage 
and  treasure.  That  monarch  had  been  easily  persuaded  that 
his  former  defeat  was  owing  solely  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  and,  therefore,  he  now  selected  a  wide  plain  for  an 
engagement,  where  there  was  abundant  room  for  his  multi- 
tudinous infantry,  and  for  the  evolutions  of  his  horsemen 
and  charioteers. 

Alexander,  after  giving  his  army  a  few  days'  rest,  set  out 
to  meet  the  enemy  soon  after  midnight,  in  order  that  he 
might  come  up  with  thera  about  daybreak.  On  ascending 
some  sand-hills  the  whole  array  of  the  Persians  suddenly 


READIN'GS    I]^    GREEK    HISTORY.  185 

burst  upon  the  view  of  the  Macedonians  at  the  distance  of 
three  or  four  miles.  Darius,  as  usual,  occupied  the  center, 
surrounded  by  his  body-guard  and  chosen  troops.  In  front 
of  the  royal  position  were  ranged  the  war-chariots  and  ele- 
phants, and  on  either  side  the  Greek  mercenaries,  to  the 
number,  it  is  said,  of  50,000.  Alexander  spent  the  first  day 
in  surveying  the  ground  and  preparing  for  the  attack ;  he 
also  addressed  his  troops,  pointing  out  to  them  that  the  prize 
of  victory  would  not  be  a  mere  province,  but  the  dominion 
of  all  Asia.  Yet  so  great  was  the  tranquillity  with  which  he 
contemplated  the  re^sult,  that  at  daybreak  on  the  following 
morning,  when  the  officers  came  to  receive  his  final  instruc- 
tions, they  found  him  in  a  deep  slumber.  His  army,  which 
consisted  only  of  40,000  foot  and  7000  horse,  was  drawn  up 
in  the  order  which  he  usually  observed,  namely,  with  the 
phalanx  in  the  center  in  six  divisions,  and  the  Macedonian 
cavalry  on  the  right,  where  Alexander  himself  took  his 
station.  And  as  there  was  great  danger  of  being  out- 
flanked, he  formed  a  second  line  in  the  rear,  composed  of 
some  divisions  of  the  phalanx  and  a  number  of  light  troops 
cavalry,  which  were  to  act  in  any  quarter  threatened  by  the 
enemy. 

The  Persians,  fearful  of  being  surprised,  had  stood  under 
arms  the  whole  night,  so  that  the  morning  found  them  ex- 
hausted and  dispirited.  Some  of  them,  however,  fought 
with  considerable  bravery;  but  when  Alexander  had  suc- 
ceeded in  breaking  their  line,  by  an  impetuous  charge, 
Darius  mounted  a  fleet  horse  and  took  to  flight,  as  at  Issus, 
though  the  fortune  of  the  day  was  yet  far  from  having  been 
decided.  At  length,  however,  the  rout  became  general. 
Whilst  daylight  lasted,  Alexander  pursued  the  flying  enemy 
as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Lycus,  or  Greater  Zab,  where 
thousands  of  the  Persians  perished  in  the  attempt  to  pass 


186  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

the  river.  After  resting  his  men  a  few  hours,  Alexander 
continued  the  pursuit  at  midnight  in  the  hope  of  overtaking 
Darius  at  Arbela.  The  Persian  monarch,  however,  had  con- 
tinued his  flight  without  stopping;  but  the  whole  of  the 
royal  baggage  and  treasure  was  captured  at  Arbela. — Smith. 

Victory  over  Poms. — Alexander  crossed  the  Indus  in 
the  early  spring  of  326  B.  c.  It  is  presumed,  probably 
enough,  that  he  crossed  at  or  near  Attock,  the  passage  now 
frequented.  He  at  first  marched  to  Taxila,  where  the  prince 
Taxilus  at  once  submitted,  and  reinforced  the  army  with  a 
strong  contingent  of  Indian  soldiers.  His  alliance  and  in- 
formation was  found  extremely  valuable.  The  whole  neigh- 
boring territory  submitted,  and  was  placed  under  Philippus 
as  satrap,  with  a  garrison  and  depot  at  Taxila.  He  experi- 
enced no  resistance  until  he  reached  the  river  Hydaspes 
(Jelum),  on  the  other  side  of  which  the  Indian  prince  Porus 
stood  prepared  to  dispute  the  passage — a  brave  man,  with  a 
formidable  force,  better  armed  than  Indians  generally  were, 
with  many  trained  elephants,  which  animal  the  Macedonians 
had  never  yet  encountered  in  battle.  By  a  series  of  admi- 
rable military  combinations,  Alexander  eluded  the  vigilance 
of  Porus,  stole  the  passage  of  the  river  at  a  point  a  few  miles 
above,  and  completely  defeated  the  Indian  army.  In  spite 
of  their  elephants,  which  were  skillfully  managed,  the 
Indians  could  not  long  withstand  the  shock  of  close  com- 
bat against  such  cavalry  and  infantry  as  the  Macedonians. 
Porus,  a  prince  of  gigantic  stature,  mounted  on  an  elephant, 
fought  with  the  utmost  gallantry,  rallying  his  broken  troops 
and  keeping  them  together  until  the  last.  Having  seen  two 
of  his  sons  slain,  himself  wounded  and  perishing  with  thirst, 
he  was  only  preserved  by  the  special  directions  of  Alexander. 
When  Porus  was  brought  before  him,  Alexander  was  struck 


READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY.  187 

with  admiration  at  his  stature,  beauty,  and  undaunted  bear- 
ing. Addressing  him  first,  he  asked  what  Porus  wished  to 
be  done  for  him.  ''That  you  should  treat  me  as  a  king," 
was  the  reply  of  Porus.  Alexander,  delighted  with  these 
words,  behaved  toward  Porus  with  the  utmost  courtesy  and 
generosity,  not  only  ensuring  to  him  his  actual  kingdom,  but 
enlarging  it  by  new  additions.  He  found  in  Porus  a  faithful 
and  efficient  ally.  This  was  the  greatest  day  of  Alexander's 
life,  if  w^e  take  together  the  splendor  and  difficulty  of  the 
military  achievement,  and  the  generous  treatment  of  his 
conquered  opponent. — Grote. 

Death  of  Clitus. — It  was  in  the  summer  of  328,  when 
the  flying  columns  already  mentioned  had  reunited  at  Mara- 
canda,  that  a  great  banquet  was  held  on  a  day  sacred  to 
Dionysus.  Deep  drinking,  sa3's  Arrian,  was  becoming  the 
fashion  in  camp;  and  with  the  deep  drinking  began  loud 
talking  about  the  heroes  of  the  day  and  their  relationship  to 
Zeus ;  and  some  of  Alexander's  more  open  flatterers  began 
disparaging  the  deeds  even  of  Hercules  in  comparison  with 
those  of  the  king.  There  was  one  man  present  to  whom 
these  eulogies  were  specially  distasteful.  This  man  was 
Clitus,  commander  of  one  division  of  the  Companion 
cavalry,  who  had  saved  the  king's  life  at  the  Granicus,  and 
whose  sister  had  been  the  king's  nurse.  But,  however  inti- 
mate his  relations  were  with  Alexander,  he  had  long  been 
secretly  offended,  like  some  others  of  the  officers,  by  his 
adoption  of  Persian  habits,  and  by  the  adulation  which  w^as 
expected  and  given.  Heated  now  by  wine,  he  protested 
aloud  against  this  disparagement  of  old-world  heroes.  The 
acts  of  Alexander,  he  cried,  were  not  comparable  to  those  of 
Hercules  ;  nay,  not  even  to  those  of  Philip.  Philip's  great- 
ness was  due  to  himself   alone ;    Alexander's,  in  part  to 


188  READINGS     IN     GREEK     HISTORY. 

others,  to  Philip's  oflRcers,  to  Parmenio.  Then,  raising  his 
right  hand  on  high,  "  This  hand,"  he  exchiimed,  ^*  Alex- 
ander, at  the  Granicus  saved  thy  life."  The  king  started 
from  his  couch,  maddened  by  a  conflict  of  feelings.  In 
vain  did  his  generals  crowd  around  and  try  to  restrain  him. 
He  called  aloud  for  the  guard.  He  protested  that  he  was  a 
second  Darius  in  the  hands  of  a  second  Bessos,  and  king 
only  in  name.  At  last,  exerting  his  vast  personal  strength, 
he  broke  from  the  group  of  officers,  who  were  doubtless 
afraid  to  use  much  physical  force,  and,  snatching  a  pike 
from  one  of  the  soldiers,  slew  Clitus,  who,  after  being  once 
dragged  from  the  room,  had  been  rash  enough  to  return. 
It  was  a  terrible  deed,  followed  by  a  terrible  remorse.  Alex- 
ander hurried  from  the  hall  to  his  chamber,  and  for  three 
days  neither  ate  nor  drank,  calling  aloud  with  deep  groans 
for  Clitus  and  for  Clitus'  sister,  and  reproaching  himself  as 
the  murderer  of  his  friends. 

It  was,  indeed,  too  true.  Parmenio  was  dead,  and  now 
Clitus  was  dead,  and  each  man  might  wonder  whose  turn 
would  be  next.  But  the  past  could  not  be  recalled,  and 
soldiers  and  officers,  seers  and  philosophers,  one  and  all, 
feeling  how  intimately  their  own  safety,  at  the  ends  of  the 
world,  was  bound  up  in  the  safety  of  the  king,  rebuked, 
implored  and  argued  until  he  was  induced  once  more  to  eat, 
and  return  to  that  hfe  and  energy  which  would  be  the  best 
solace  for  his  grief. — Curteis. 

Death  of  Alexander. — The  intense  sorrow  felt  by  Alex- 
ander for  the  death  of  Hephasstion — not  merely  an  attached 
friend,  but  of  the  same  age  and  exuberant  vigor  as  himself — 
laid  his  mind  open  to  gloomy  forebodings  from  numerous 
omens  as  well  as  to  jealous  mistrust,  even  of  his  oldest 
officers.    Antipater  especially,  no  longer  protected  against 


READINGS     11^     GREEK     HISTORY.  189 

the  calumnies  of  Olympias  by  the  support  of  Hephsestion, 
fell  more  and  more  into  discredit,  while  his  son  Kassander, 
who  had  recently  come  into  Asia  with  a  Macedonian  re- 
inforcement, underwent  from  Alexander  during  irascible 
moments  much  insulting  violence.  In  spite  of  the  dissua- 
sive warning  of  the  Chaldean  priests,  Alexander  had  been 
persuaded  to  distrust  their  sincerity,  and  had  entered  Baby- 
lon, though  not  without  hesitation  and  uneasiness.  How- 
ever, when,  after  having  entered  the  town,  he  went  out  of  it 
again  safely  on  his  expedition  for  the  survey  of  the  lower 
Euphrates,  he  conceived  himself  to  have  exposed  them  as 
deceitful  alarmists,  and  returned  to  the  city  with  increased 
confidence  for  the  obsequies  of  his  deceased  friend. 

The  sacrifices  connected  with  these  obsequies  were  on  the 
most  prodigious  scale.  Victims  enough  were  offered  to  fur- 
nish a  feast  for  the  army,  who  also  received  ample  distribu- 
tions of  wine. 

Alexander  presided  in  person  at  the  feast,  and  abandoned 
himself  to  conviviality  like  the  rest.  Already  full  of  wine, 
he  was  persuaded  by  his  friend  Medius  to  sup  with  him,  and 
to  pass  the  whole  night  in  yet  further  drinking,  with  the 
boisterous  indulgence  called  by  the  Greeks  Comus  or 
Eevelry.  Having  slept  off  his  intoxication  during  the  next 
day,  he  in  the  evening  again  supped  with  Medius,  and  spent 
a  second  night  in  the  like  unmeasured  indulgence.  It  ap- 
pears that  he  already  had  the  seeds  of  a  fever  upon  him, 
which  was  so  fatally  aggravated  by  this  intemperance  that 
he  was  too  ill  to  return  to  his  palace.  He  took  the  bath  and 
slept  in  the  house  of  Medius ;  on  the  next  morning  he  was 
unable  to  rise.  After  having  been  carried  out  on  a  couch  to 
celebrate  sacrifice  (which  was  his  daily  habit)  he  was  obliged 
to  lie  in  bed  all  day.  Nevertheless,  he  summoned  the 
generals  to  his  presence,  prescribing  all  the  details  of  the 


190  READINGS    IN    GREEK    HISTORY. 

impending  expedition,  and  ordering  that  the  land  force 
should  begin  its  march  on  the  fourth  day  following,  while 
the  fleet,  with  himself  aboard,  would  sail  on  the  fifth  day. 
In  the  evening  he  was  carried  on  a  couch  across  the  Euphrates 
into  a  garden  on  the  other  side,  where  he  bathed  and  rested 
for  the  night.  The  fever  still  continued,  so  that  in  the 
morning,  after  bathing  and  being  carried  out  to  perform  the 
sacrifices,  he  remained  on  his  couch  all  day  talking  and 
playing  at  dice  with  Medius ;  in  the  evening  he  bathed, 
sacrificed  again,  and  ate  a  light  supper,  but  endured  a  bad 
night  with  increased  fever.  The  next  two  days  passed  in 
the  same  manner,  the  fever  becoming  worse  and  worse  ; 
nevertheless,  Alexander  still  summoned  Nearchus  to  his 
bedside,  discussed  with  him  many  points  about  his  maritime 
projects,  and  repeated  his  order  that  the  fleet  should  be  ready 
by  the  third  day.  On  the  ensuing  morning,  the  fever  was 
violent ;  Alexander  reposed  all  day  in  a  bathing-house  in 
the  garden,  yet  still  calling  in  the  generals  to  direct  the 
filling  up  of  vacancies  among  the  ofiicers,  and  ordering  that 
the  armament  should  be  ready  to  move.  Throughout  the 
two  next  days  his  malady  became  hourly  more  aggravated. 
On  the  second  of  the  two,  Alexander  could  with  difficulty 
support  the  being  lifted  out  of  bed  to  perform  the  sacrifice  ; 
even  then,  however,  he  continued  to  give  orders  to  the  gen- 
erals about  the  expedition.  On  the  morrow,  though  desper- 
ately ill,  he  still  made  the  effort  requisite  for  performing  the 
sacrifice ;  he  was  then  carried  across  from  the  garden-house 
to  the  palace,  giving  orders  that  the  generals  and  officers 
should  remain  in  permanent  attendance  in  and  near  the 
hall.  He  caused  some  of  them  to  be  called  to  his  bedside, 
but,  though  he  knew  them  perfectly,  he  had  by  this  time 
become  incapable  of  utterance.  One  of  his  last  words 
spoken  is  said  to  have  been,  on  being  asked  to  whom  he 


READINGS    IK     GREEK     HISTORY.  191 

bequeathed  his  kingdom,  '*To  the  strongest."  One  of  his 
last  acts  was  to  take  the  signet-ring  from  his  finger  and 
hand  it  to  Perdiccas. 

For  two  nights  and  a  day  he  continued  in  this  state,  with- 
out either  amendment  or  repose.  Meanwhile  the  news  of  his 
malady  had  spread  through  the  army,  filling  them  with 
grief  and  consternation.  Many  of  the  soldiers,  eager  to  see 
him  once  more,  forced  their  way  into  the  palace,  and  were 
admitted  unarmed.  They  passed  along  by  the  bedside  with 
all  the  demonstrations  of  affliction  and  sympathy.  Alex- 
ander knew  them,  and  made  show  of  friendly  recognition  as 
well  as  he  could,  but  was  unable  to  say  a  word. 

Several  of  the  generals  slept  in  the  temple  of  Serapis, 
hoping  to  be  informed  by  the  god  in  a  dream  whether  they 
ought  to  bring  Alexander  into  it  as  a  suppliant  to  experience 
the  divine  healing  power.  The  god  informed  them  in  their 
dream  that  Alexander  ought  not  to  be  brought  into  the 
temple— that  it  would  be  better  for  him  to  be  left  where  he 
was.  In  the  afternoon  he  expired — June,  323  b.  c. — after  a 
life  of  thirty-two  years  and  eight  months,  and  a  reign  of 
twelve  years  and  eight  months. — Grote. 


THE  NATIONAL  SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


SUPPLEMENTARY     READING. 


Monteith's    Popular    Science    Reader. 

James  Monteith,  author  of  Monteith's  Geographies,  has  here  presented  a  Supple- 
mentary Reading  Book  expressly  for  the  work  uf  instruction  in  reading  and  science  at 
one  and  the  same  time.  It  presents  a  number  of  easy  and  interesting  lessons  on  Natural 
Science  and  Natural  History,  interspersed  with  appropriate  selections  in  prose  and 
poetry  from  standard  authors,  with  blackboard  drawing  and  written  exercises.  It 
serves  to  instil  the  noblest  qualities  of  soul  and  mind,  without  rehearsing  stories  of 
moral  and  mental  depravity,  as  is  too  often  done  in  juvenile  books.  The  boolc  is  elabo- 
rately illustrated  with  fine  engravings,  and  brief  notes  at  the  foot  of  each  page  add  to 
the  value  and  teachableness  of  the  volume.     12mo,  half  bound,  360  pages. 

The    Standard    Supplementary    Readers. 

The  Standard  Supplementary  Readers  (formerly  Swintori^s  Supplementary  Readtrs), 
edited  by  William  Swinton  and  George  R.  Cathcart,  have  been  received  with  marked 
favor  in  representative  quarters  from  Maine  to  California.  They  comprise  a  series  of 
carefully  graduated  reading  books,  designed  to  connect  with  any  series  of  school  Readers. 
They  are  attractive  in  appearance,  are  bound  in  cloth,  and  the  first  four  books  are 
profusely  illustrated  by  Fredericks,  White,  Dielman,  Church,  and  others.  The  six  books, 
which  are  closely  co-ordinated  with  the  several  Readers  of  any  regular  series,  are :  — 

1.  Easy  Steps  for  Little  Feet.    Supplementary  to  First  Reader. 

In  this  book  the  attractive  is  the  chief  aim,  and  the  pieces  have  been  written  and 
chosen  with  special  reference  to  the  feelings  and  fancies  of  early  childhood.  128  pages, 
bound  in  cloth  and  profusely  illustrated. 

2.  Golden   Book   of   Choice    Beading.     Supplementary  to   Second 

Reader. 
This  book  represents  a  great  variety  of  pleasing  and  instructive  reading,  consisting  of 
child-lore  and  poetry,  noble  examples  and  attractive  object-reading,  written  specially  for  it. 
192  pages,  cloth,  with  numerous  illustrations. 

3.  Book  of   Tales.    Being   School  Readings  Imaginative  and  Emotional. 

Supplementary  to  Third  Reader. 
In  this  book  the  youthful  taste  for  imaginative  and  emotional  is  fed  with  pure  and  noble 
creations  drawn  from  the  literature  of  all  nations.    272  pages,  cloth.     Fully  illustrated. 

4.  Readings  in  Nature's  Book.    Supplementary  to  Fourth  Reader. 
This  book  contains  a  varied  collection  of  charming  readings  in  natural  history   and 

botany,  drawn  from  the  works  of  the  great  modern  naturalists  and  travellers.    352  pages, 
'loth.     Fully  illustrated. 

5.  Seven  American  Classics. 

6.  Seven  British  Classics. 

The  "  Classics  "  are  suitable  for  reading  in  advanced  grades,  and  aim  to  instil  a 
taste  for  the  higher  literature,  by  the  presentation  of  gems  of  British  and  American 
authorship.     220  pages  each,  cloth. 


§ 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES   OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


BARNES'S  NEW  MATHEMATICS. 

In  this  series  Joseph  Ficklin,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy 
in  the  University  of  Missouri,  lias  combined  all  the  best  and  latest  results  of  practical 
and  experimental  teaching  of  arithmetic  with  the  assistance  of  many  distinguished 
mathematical  authors. 


Barnes's  Elementary  Arithmetic. 
Barnes's  National  Arithmetic. 

These  two  works  constitute  a  complete  arithmetical  course  in  tvjo  hooks. 

They  meet  the  demand  for  text-books  that  will  help  students  to  acquire  the  greatest 
amount  of  useful  and  practical  knowledge  of  Arithmetic  by  the  smallest  expenditure  of 
time,  labor,  and  money.  Nearly  every  topic  in  Written  Arithmetic  is  introduced,  and  its 
principles  illustrated,  by  exercises  in  Oral  Arithmetic.  The  free  use  of  Equations  ;  the 
concise  method  of  combining  and  treating  Properties  of  Numbers;  the  treatment  of 
Multiplication  and  Division  of  Fractions  in  ^wo  cases,  and  then  reduced  to  ohc;  Can- 
cellation, by  the  use  of  the  vertical  line,  especially  in  Fractions,  Interest,  and  Proportion ; 
the  brief,  simple,  and  greatly  superior  method  of  working  Partial  Payments  by  the 
'•  Time  Table  "  and  Cancellation  ;  the  substitution  of  formulas  to  a  great  extent  for 
rules;  the  full  and  practical  treatment  of  the  Metric  System,  &c.,  indicate  their  com- 
pleteness. A  variety  of  methods  and  processes  for  the  same  topic,  which  deprive  the 
pupil  of  the  great  benefit  of  doing  a  part  of  the  thinking  and  labor  for  himself,  have 
been  discarded.  The  statement  of  princijiles,  definitions,  rules,  &c.,  is  brief  and  simple. 
The  illustrations  and  methods  are  explicit,  direct,  and  practical.  The  great  number 
and  variety  of  Examples  embody  the  actual  business  of  the  day.  The  very  large 
amount  of  matter  condensed  in  so  small  a  compass  has  been  accomplished  by  econo- 
mizing every  line  of  space,  by  rejecting  superfluous  matter  and  obsolete  terms,  and  by 
avoiding  the  repetition  of  analyses,  explanations,  and  operations  in  the  advanced  topics 
which  have  been  used  in  the  more  elementary  parts  of  these  books. 

AUXILIARIES. 

For  use  in  district  schools,  and  for  supplying  a  text-book  in  advanced  work  for 
classes  having  finished  the  course  as  given  in  the  ordinary  Practical  Arithmetics,  the 
National  Aritlimetic  has  been  divided  and  bound  separately,  as  follows  :  — 

Barnes's  Practical  Arithmetic. 

Barnes's  Advanced  Arithmetic. 

In  many  schools  there  are  classes  that  for  various  reasons  never  reach  beyond 
Percentage.  It  is  just  suclj  cases  where  Barnes's  Practical  Arithmetic  will  answer  a 
good  purpose,  at  a  price  to  the  pupil  mucli  less  than  to  buy  the  complete  book.  On  the 
other  hand,  classes  having  finished  the  ordinary  Practical  Arithmetic  can  proceed 
with  the  higher  course  by  using  Barnes's  Advanced  Arithmetic. 

For  primary  schools  requiring  simply  a  table  book,  and  the  earliest  rudiments 
forcibly  presented  through  object-teaching  and  cojiious  illustrations,  we  have 
prepan^d 

Barnes's  First  Lesson/s  in  Arithmetic, 

which  begins  with  the  most  elementary  notions  of  numbers,  and  proceeds,  by  simple 
steps,  to  develop  all  the  fundamental  principles  of  Arithmetic. 


Barnes's  Elements  of  Algebra: 

Tliis  work,  as  its  title  indicates,  is  elementary  in  its  character  and  suitable  for  use, 
(1)  in  such  public  schools  as  give  instruction  in  the  Elements  of  Algebra  :  (2)  in  institu- 
tions of  learning  whose  courses  of  study  do  not  include  Higher  Algebra  ;  (3)  in  schools 
whose  object  is  to  prepare  students  for  entrance  into  our  colleges  and  universities. 
This  book  will  also  meet  the  wants  of  students  of  Physics  who  require  some  knowledge  of 

2P 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD   SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


Algebra.  The  student's  progress  in  Algebra  depends  very  largely  upon  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  the  four  Fundamental  Operations.  The  terms  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication, 
and  Division  in  Algebra  have  a  wider  meaning  than  in  Arithmetic,  and  these  operations 
have  been  so  detined  as  to  include  their  arithmetical  meaning  ;  so  that  the  beginner 
is  simply  called  upon  to  enlarge  his  views  of  those  fundamental  operations.  Much 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  explanation  of  the  negative  sign,  in  order  to  remove  the 
well-known  difficulties  in  the  use  and  interpretation  of  that  sign.  Special  attention  is 
here  called  to  "  A  Short  Method  of  Removhig  Symbols  of  Aggregation,"  Art.  76.  On 
account  of  their  importance,  the  subjects  of  Factoring,  Greatest  Common  Divisor,  and 
Least  Common  3Iulti])le  have  been  treated  at  greater  length  than  is  usual  in  elementary 
■works.  In  the  treatment  of  Fractions,  a  method  is  used  which  is  quite  simple,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  more  general  than  that  usually  employed.  In  connection  witli  Radical 
Qua7itities  the  roots  are  expressed  by  fractional  exponents,  for  the  princii)lcs  and  rules 
applicable  to  integral  exponents  may  then  be  used  without  modification.  The  Equation 
is  made  the  chief  subject  of  thought  in  this  work.  It  is  defined  near  the  beginning, 
and  used  extensively  in  every  chapter.  In  addition  to  this,  four  chapters  are  devoted 
exclusively  to  the  subject  of  Equations.  All  Proportions  are  equations,  and  in  their 
treatment  as  such  all  the  difficulty  commonly  connected  with  the  subject  of  Proportion 
disappears.  The  chapter  on  Logarithms  will  doubtless  be  acceptable  to  many  teacliers 
who  do  not  require  the  student  to  master  Higher  Algebra  before  entering  upon  the 
study  of  Trigonometry. 

HIGHER     MATHEMATICS. 
Peck's  Manual  of  Algebra. 

Bringing  the  methods  of  Bourdon  within  the  range  of  the  Academic  Course. 

Peck's  Manual  of  Geometry. 

By  a  method  purely  practical,  and  unembarrassed  by  the  details  which  rather  confuse 
than  simplify  science. 

Peck's  Practical  Calculus. 

Peck's  Analytical  Geometry. 

Peck's  Elementary  Mechanics. 

Peck's  Mechanics,  with  Calculus. 

The  briefest  treatise's  on  these  subjects  now  published.  Adopted  by  the  great  Univer- 
sities :  Yale,  Harvard,  Columbia,  Princeton,  Cornell,  &c. 

Macnie's  Algebraical  Equations. 

Serving  as  a  complement  to  the  more  advanced  treatises  on  Algebra,  giving  special 
attention  to  the  analysis  and  solution  of  equations  with  numerical  coeflScieuts. 

Church's  Elements  of  Calculus. 

Church's  Analytical  Geometry. 

Church's  Descriptive  Geometry.     With  plates.     2  vols. 

These  volumes  constitute  the  "  West  Point  Course "  in  their  several  departments. 
Prof.  Church  was  long  the  eminent  professor  of  mathematics  at  West  Point  Military 
Academy,  and  his  works  are  standard  in  all  the  leading  colleges. 

Courtenay's  Elements  of  Calculus. 

A  standard  work  of  the  very  highest  grade,  presenting  the  most  elaborate  attainable 
survey  of  the  subject 

Hackley's  Trigonometry. 

With  ai)plications  to  Navigation  and  Surveying,  Nautical  and  Practical  Geometry, 
and  Geodesy. 

21 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


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GENERAL    HISTORY. 

Monteith's  Youth's  History  of  the  United  States. 

A  History  of  the  United  States  for  beginners.  It  is  arranged  upon  the  catechetical  ]»lan, 
with  illustrative  maps  and  engravings,  review  questions,  dates  in  parentheses  (that  their 
study  may  be  optional  with  the  younger  class  of  learners),  and  interesting  biographical, 
sketches  of  all  persons  who  have  been  prominently  identified  with  the  history  of  our 
country. 

Willard's  United  States.      School  and  University  Editions. 

The  plan  of  this  standard  work  is  chronologically  exhibited  in  front  of  the  titlepage. 
The  maps  and  sketches  are  found  useful  assistants  to  the  memory  ;  and  dates,  usually 
so  difficult  to  remember,  are  so  systematically  arranged  as  in  a  great  degree  to  obviate 
the  difficulty.  Candor,  impartiality,  and  accuracy  are  the  distinguishing  featured  of 
the  narrative  portion. 

Willard's  Universal  History.     New  Edition. 

The  most  valuable  features  of  the  "  United  States  "  are  reproduced  in  this.  The 
peculiarities  of  the  work  are  its  great  conciseness  and  the  prominence  given  to  the 
chronological  order  of  events.  The  margin  marks  each  successive  era  with  great  dis- 
tinctness, so  that  the  pupil  retains  not  only  the  event  but  its  time,  and  thus  fixes  the 
order  of  history  firmly  and  usefully  in  his  mind.  Mrs.  Wilhu-d's  books  are  constantly 
revised,  and  at  all  times  written  up  to  embrace  important  historical  events  of  recent 
date.     Professor  Arthur  Gilman  has  edited  the  last  twenty-five  years  to  1882. 

Lancaster's  English  History. 

By  the  Master  of  the  Stoughton  Grammar  School,  Boston.  The  most  practical  of  the 
"brief  books."  Though  short,  it  is  not  a  bare  and  uninteresting  outline,  but  contains 
enough  of  explanation  and  detai  1  to  make  intelligible  the  cause  and  effect  of  events. 
Their  relations  to  the  history  and  development  of  the  American  people  is  made  specially 
prominent. 

Willis's  Historical  Reader. 

Being  Collier's  Great  Events  of  History  adapted  to  American  schools.  This  rare 
epitome  of  general  history,  remarkable  for  its  charming  style  and  judicious  selection  of 
events  on  which  the  destinies  of  nations  have  turned,  has  been  skilfully  manipulated 
by  Professor  Willis,  with  as  few  changes  as  would  bring  the  United  States  into  its  proper 
position  in  the  historical  perspective.  As  reader  or  text-book  it  has  few  equals  and  no 
superior. 

Berard's  History  of  England. 

By  an  authoress  well  known  for  the  success  of  her  History  of  the  United  States. 
The  social  life  of  the  English  people  is  felicitously  interwoven,  as  in  fact,  with  the  civil 
and  military  transactions  of  the  realm. 

Ricord's  History  of  Rome. 

Possesses  the  diarm  of  an  attractive  romance.  The  fables  with  which  rtiis  history 
abounds  are  introduced  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  deceive  the  inexperienced,  while  adding 
materially  to  the  value  of  the  work  as  a  reliable  index  to  the  character  and  institutions, 
43  well  as  the  historv  of  the  Roman  people. 

22 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OE  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

HISTORY  —  Continued. 

Hanna's  Bible  History. 

The  only  compendium  of  Bible  narrative  which  affords  a  connected  and  chronological 
view  of  the  important  events  there  recorded,  divested  of  all  superfluous  detail 

Summary  of  History;  American,  French,  and  English. 

A  well-proportioned  outline  of  leading  events,  condensing  the  substance  of  the  more 
extensive  text-books  in  common  use  into  a  series  of  statements  so  brief,  that  every 
word  may  be  committed  to  memory,  and  yet  so  comprehensive  that  it  presents  an 
accurate  though  general  view  of  the  whole  continuous  hfe  of  nations. 

Marsh's  Ecclesiastical  History. 

Affording  the  History  of  the  Cliurch  in  all  ages,  with  accounts  of  the  pagan  world 
during  the  bibhcal  periods,  and  the  character,  rise,  and  progress  of  all  religions,  as  well 
as  the  various  sects  of  the  worshippers  of  Christ.  The  work  is  entirely  non-sectarian, 
though  strictly  catholic.  A  separate  volume  contains  carefully  prepared  questrons  for 
class  use.  ^ 

Mill's  History  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews. 

With  valuable  Chronological  Cliarts,  prepared  by  Professor  Edwards  of  N.  Y.  This 
is  a  succinct  account  of  the  chosen  people  of  God  to  the  time  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.     Complete  in  one  volume. 

Topical  History  Chart  Book. 

By  Miss  Ida  P.  Whitcomb.  To  be  used  in  connection  with  anij  History,  indent  or 
Modern,  instead  of  the  ordinary  blank  book  for  summary.  It  embodies  the  names  of 
contemporary  rulers  from  the  earliest  to  the  present  time,  with  blanks  under  each,  in 
which  the  pupil  may  write  tlie  summary  of  the  life  of  the  ruler. 

Oilman's  First  Steps  in  General  History. 

A  "suggestive  outline"  of  rare  compactness.  Each  country  is  treated  by  itself,  and 
the  United  States  receive  special  attention.  Frequent  maps',  contemporary  events  in 
tables,  references,  to  standard  works  for  fuller  details,  and  a  minute  Index  constitute 
the  "  Illustrative  Apparatus."  From  no  other  work  that  we  know  of  can  so  succinct  a 
view  of  the  world's  history  be  obtained.  Considering  the  necessary  limitation  of  space, 
the  style  is  surprisingly  vivid,  and  at  times  even  ornate.  In  all  respects  a  charming, 
though  not  the  less  practical,  text-book. 

Baker's  Brief  History  of  Texas. 
Dimitry's  History  of  Louisana. 
Alison's  Napoleon  First. 

The  history  of  Europe  from  1788  to  1815.  By  Archibald  Alison.  Abridged  by  Edward 
S.  Gould.     One  vol.,  8vo,  with  appendix,  questions,  and  maps.     550  pages. 

Lord's  Points  of  History. 

The  salient  points  in  the  history  of  the  world  arranged  catechetically  for  class  use  or 
for  review  and  examination  of  teacher  or  pupil.  By  John  Lord,  LL.D.  12mo,  300 
pages. 

Carrington's  Battle  Maps  and  Charts  of  the  American 
Revolution. 

Topographical  Maps  and  Chronological  Charts  of  every  battle,  with  3  steel  portraits 
of  Washington.     8vo,  cloth. 

Condit's  History  of  the  English  Bible. 

For  theological  and  historical  students  this  book  has  an  intrinsic  value.  It  gives  the 
history  of  all  the  English  translations  down  to  the  present  time,  together  with  a  careful 
review  of  their  influence  upon  English  literature  and  language. 

23 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


BARNES'S  ONE-TERM    HISTORY 
SERIES. 


A    Brief     History    of    the    United 
States. 

This  is  probably  the  most  original  school-book  pub- 
lished for  many  years,  in  any  department.  A  few  of  its 
claims  are  the  following  :  — 

1.  Brevity.  —  The  text  is  complete  for  grammar  school 
or  intermediate  classes,  in  200  12ino  pages,  large  type. 
It  may  readily  be  completed,  if  desired,  in  one  teriii  of 
study. 

2.  Comprehensiveness  —  Though  so  brief,  this  book 
contains  the  pith  of  all  the  wearying  contents  of  the  larger 
manuals,  and  a  great  deal  more  than  the  memory  usually 
retains  Irom  the  latter. 

3.  Interest  has  been  a  prime  consideration.  Small 
books  have  heretofore  been  bare,  full  of  dry  statistics,  unattractive.  This  one  is 
chariningly  written,  replete  with  anecdote,  and  brilliant  with  illustration. 

4.  Proportion  of  Events.  —  It  is  remarkable  for  the  discrimination  with  which 
the  different  jiortions  of  our  liistory  are  ])resented  according  to  their  importance.  Thus 
the  older  works,  being  already  large  books  when  the  Civil  War  took  place,  give  it  less 
space  than  that  accorded  to  the  Revolution. 

5.  Arrangement. —  In  six  epochs,  entitled  respectively,  Discovery  and  Settlement, 
the  Cok)nies,  tlie  licvobition,  Growth  of  States,  the  Civil  War,  and  Current  Events. 

6.  Catch  Words.  —  Each  paragraph  is  preceded  by  its  leading  thought  in  i)romi- 
nent  tyiie,  stiuiding  in  the  student's  mind  for  the  whole  paragraph. 

7.  Key  Notes.  —  Analogous  with  this  is  the  idea  of  grouping  battles,  &c.,  about 
some  central  event,  which  relieves  the  sameness  so  common  in  such  descriptions,  and 
renders  each  distinct  by  some  striking  peculiarity  of  its  own. 

8.  Foot-Notes. — These  are  crowded  with  interesting  matter  that  is  not  strictly  a 
part  of  liistory  proi)er.  They  may  be  learned  or  not,  at  pleasure.  They  are  certain 
in  any  event  to  be  read. 

9.  Biographies  of  all  the  leading  characters  are  given  in  full  in  foot-notes. 

10.  Maps.  —  Klegant  and  distinct  mai)s  from  engravings  on  copi)er-i)late,  and  beauti- 
fully colored,  precede  each  epoch,  and  contain  all  the  iilaces  named. 

11.  Questions  are  at  the  back  of  the  book,  to  compel  a  more  indeiiendent  use  of  the 
text,  iioth  text  and  questions  are  so  worded  tliat  the  jiupil  must  give  intelligent 
answers  in  his  own  words.     "  Yes  "  and  "  No  "  will  not  do. 


24 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


lifEOEWflO^ 


A  Brief  History  of  An- 
cient Peoples. 


With  an  accoi;nt  of  their  monuments, 
literature,  and  manners.  340  pages. 
12mo.    Profusely  illustrated. 

In  this  work  the  iiolitical  history, 
which  occupies  nearly,  if  not  all, 
the  ordinary  school  text,  is  condensed 
to  the  salient  and  essential  facts,  in 
order  to  give  room  for  a  clear  outline 
of  the  literature,  religion,  architecture, 
cliaracter,  habits,  &c.,  of  each  nation. 
Surely  it  is  as  important  to  know  some- 
thing  about  Plato  as  all  about  Caesar, 
and  to  learn  how  the  ancients  wrote 
their  books  as  how  they  fought  their 
battles. 
The  chapters  on  Manners  and  Cus- 

..__-    __  mm i  j_i  -w^sr■  '"^^^-      _      ->-5!^-     "      toms  and  the  Scenes  in  Real  Life  repre- 

^^^^^-'~  ~  g^.  '^■*^s^^^^~'-^  ''V.t'^-  ^,      sent  the  people  of  history  as  men  and 

women  subject  to  the  same  wants,  hopes 
and  fears  as  ourselves,  and  so  bring  the  distant  past  near  to  us.  The  Scenes,  which  are 
intended  only  for  rendinfr,  are  the  result  of  a  careful  study  of  the  unequalled  collections  of 
monuments  in  the  London  and  Berlin  Museums,  of  the  ruins  in  Rome  and  Pompeii,  and 
of  the  la.test  authorities  on  ttie  domestic  life  of  ancient  peoples.  Though  intentionally 
written  in  a  semi-romantic  style,  they  are  accurate  pictures  of  what  might  have  occurred, 
and  some  of  them  are  simph^  transcriptions  of  the  details  sculptured  in  Assyrian 
alabaster  or  painted  on  Egyptian  walls. 

26 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


HISTORY  —  C'ow<muetZ. 

The  extracts  made  from  the  sacred  books  of  the  East  are  not  specimens  of  their  style 
and  teachings,  but  only  gems  selected  often  from  a  mass  of  matter,  much  of  which  would' 
be  absurd,  meaningless,  and  even  revolting.  It  has  not  seemed  best  to  cumber  a  book 
like  this  with  selections  conveying  no  moral  lesson/' 

The  numerous  cross-references,  the  abundant  dates  in  parenthesis,  the  pronunciation 
of  the  names  in  the  Index,  the  choice  reading  references  at  the  close  of  each  general 
subject,  and  the  novel  Historical  Recreations  in  the  Appendix,  will  be  of  service  to 
teacher  and  pupil  alike. 

Though  designed  primarily  for  a  text-book,  a  large  class  of  persons  —  general  readers, 
who  desire  to  know  something  about  the  progress  of  historic  criticism  and  the  recent 
discoveries  made  among  the  resurrected  monuments  of  the  East,  but  have  no  leisure  to 
read  the  ponderous  volumes  of  Brugsch,  Layard,  Grote,  Mommsen,  and  Ihne  —  wiU  find 
this  volume  just  what  they  need. 


From  Homer  B.    Sprague,  Head  Master 
Girls'  Hi ffh  School,  West  Newton  St.,  Bos- 
ton, Mass. 
"  I  beg  to  recommend  in  strong  terms 

the    adoption   of   Barnes's   'History   of 


Ancient  Peoples*  as  a  text-book.  It  is 
about  as  nearly  perfect  as  could  be 
hoped  for.  The  adoption  would  give 
great  relish  to  the  study  of  Ancient 
History." 


^M,iir  Ml 


HE  Brief  History  of  France. 

JiSCST^       By  the  iuithor  of  the  "  Bri-if  United  States," 
with  all  the  attractive  features  of  that  popu- 
lar work  (which  see)  and  new  ones  of  its  own. 
It  is   believed  that  the  History  of  France 
^-^    has    never    before   been    presented   in    such 
-c\^  brief  compass,  and  this   is  effected  without 
^  sa(;rificingone  i)article  of  interest.    Tlie  book 
reads  like  a  romance,  and,  while  drawing  the 
,    ,  student  by  an  irresistible  fascination  to  his 

task,  impresses  the  great  outlines  indelibly  upon  the  memory. 

27 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIBS  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

DR.  STEELE'S  ONE-TERM  SERIES, 
IN  ALL  THE  SCIENCES. 

Steele's  14-Weeks  Course  in  Chemistry. 
Steele's  14-W^eeks  Course  in  Astronomy. 
Steele's  14-W^eeks  Course  in  Physics. 
Steele's  14- Weeks  Course  in  Geology. 
Steele's  14-Weeks  Course  in  Physiology. 
Steele's  14-Weeks  Course  in  Zoology. 
Steele's  14-Weeks  Course  in  Botany. 

Our  text-books  in  these  studies  are,  as  a  general  tiling,  dull  and  uninteresting. 
They  contain  from  400  to  600  pages  of  dry  facts  and  unconnected  details.  They  abound 
in  that  whi(;h  the  student  cannot  learn,  much  less  remember.  The  jmpil  commences 
the  study,  is  confused  by  the  fine  print  and  coarse  print,  and  neither  knowing  exactly 
what  to  learn  nor  wliat  to  hasten  over,  is  crowded  through  the  single  term  generally 
assigned  to  each  branch,  and  frequently  comes  to  the  close  without  a  definite  and  exact 
idea  of  a  single  scientific  principle. 

iSteele's  "  Fourteen-Weeks  Courses  "  contain  only  that  which  every  well-informed  per- 
son should  know,  while  all  that  which  concerns  only  the  professional  scientist  is  omitted. 
The  language  is  clear,  simple,  and  interesting,  and  the  illustrations  bring  the  subject 
within  the  range  of  home  life  and  daily  experience.  They  give  such  of  the  general 
principles  and  the  prominent  facts  as  a  pupil  can  make  familiar  as  household  words 
within  a  single  term.  Tlie  type  is  large  and  open  ;  there  is  no  fine  print  to  annoy ; 
the  cuts  are  copies  of  genuine  experiments  or  natural  phenomena,  and  are  of  fine 
execution. 

In  fine,  by  a  system  of  condensation  peculiarly  his  own,  the  author  reduces  each 
branch  to  tlie  limits  of  a  single  term  of  study,  while  sacrificing  nothing  that  is  essential, 
and  nothing  that  is  usually  retained  from  the  study  of  the  larger  manuals  in  common 
use.  Thus  the  student  has  rare  ojiportunity  to  economize  his  time,  or  rather  to  employ 
that  which  he  has  to  the  best  advantage. 

A  notable  feature  is  the  author's  charming  "style,"  fortified  by  an  enthusiasm  over 
his  subject  in  which  the  student  will  not  fail  to  partake.  Believing  that  Natural 
Science  is  full  of  fascination,  he  has  moulded  it  into  a  form  that  attracts  the  attention 
and  kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  the  pupil. 

The  recent  editions  contain  the  author's  "Practical  Questicms  "  on  a  plan  never 
before  attemi)ted  in  scientific  text-books.  These  are  questions  as  to  the  nature  and 
cause  of  common  phenomena,  and  are  not  directly  answered  in  the  text,  the  design 
being  to  test  and  promote  an  intelligent  use  of  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  foregoing 
principles. 

Steele's  Key  to  all  His  Works. 

This  work  is  mainly  composed  of  answers  to  the  Practical  Questions,  and  solutions  of  the 
problems,  in  the  author's  celebrated  "  Fourteen-Weeks  Courses  "  in  the  several  sciences, 
with  manyhints  to  teachers,  minortables,  &c.    Should  be  on  every  teacher's  desk. 

Prof.  J.  Dofman  Steele  is  an  indefatigable  student,  as  well  as  author,  and  his  books 
have  reached  a  fabulous  circulation.  It  is  safe  to  say  of  his  books  tliat  they  have 
accomplished  more  tangible  and  better  results  in  the  class-room  than  any  other  ever 
offered  to  American  schools,  and  have  been  trnnslated  into  more  languages  for  foreign 
schools.     They  are  even  produced  in  raised  type  for  the  blind. 

32 


TH£  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


THE  NEW  GANOT. 

Introductory  Course  of  Natural  Philosophy. 

This  book  was  originally  edited  from  Ganot's  "  Popular  Physics."  by  William  G. 
Peck,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy,  Columbia  College,  and  of 
Mechanics  in  the  School  of  Mines.  It  has  recently  been  I'evised  by  Levi  S.  Bur- 
bank,  A.  M.,  late  Principal  of  Warren  Academy,  Woburn,  Mass.,  and  James  I.  Hanson, 
A.M.,  Principal  of  the  High  School,  Woburn,  Mass. 

Of  elementary  works  those  of  M.  Ganot  stand  pre-eminent,  not  only  as  popular 
treatises,  but  as  thoroughly  scientific  expositions  of  the  principles  of  Physics.  His 
"  Traite  de  Physique  "  has  not  only  met  with  unprecedented  success  in  France,  but  has 
been  extensively  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  best  works  on  Physics  that  have  been 
issued  from  the  American  press. 

In  addition  to  the  "Traite  de  Physique,"  which  is  intended  for  the  use  of  colleges 
and  higher  institutions  of  learning,  M.  Ganot  published  this  more  elementary  work, 
adapted  to  the  use  of  schools  and  academies,  in  which  he  faithfully  preserved  the 
prominent  features  and  all  the  scientific  accuracy  of  the  larger  work.  It  is  charcter- 
ized  by  a  well-balanced  distribution  of  subjects,  a  logical  development  of  scientific 
principles,  and  a  remarkable  clearness  of  definition  and  explanation.  In  addition,  it  is 
profusely  illustrated  with  beautifully  executed  engravings,  admirably  calculated  to 
convey  to  the  mind  of  the  student  a  clear  conception  of  the  principles  unfolded.  Their 
completeness  and  accuracy  are  such  as  to  enable  the  teacher  to  dispense  with  much  of 
the  apparatus  usually  employed  in  teaching  the  elements  of  Physical  Science. 

After  several  years  of  great  popularity  the  American  publishers  have  brought  this 
important  book  thoroughly  up  to  the  times.  The  death  of  the  accomplished  educator. 
Professor  Burbank,  took  place  before  he  had  completed  his  work,  and  it  was  then 
taken  in  hand  by  liis  friend.  Professor  Hanson,  who  was  familiar  with  his  plans,  and 
has  ably  and  satisfactorily  brought  the  work  to  completion. 

The  essential  characteristics  and  general  plan  of  the  book  have,  so  far  as  possible, 
been  retained,  but  at  the  same  time  many  parts  have  been  entirely  rewritten,  much 
new  matter  added,  a  large  number  of  new  cuts  introduced,  and  the  whole  treatise 
thoroughly  revised  and  brought  into  harmony  with  the  present  advanced  stage  of  sci- 
entific discovery. 

Among  the  new  features  designed  to  aid  in  teaching  the  subject-matter  are  the 
summaries  of  topics,  which,  it  is  thought,  will  be  found  very  convenient  in  short 
reviews. 

As  many  teachers  prefer  to  prepare  their  own  questions  on  the  text,  and  many  do  not 
have  time  to  spend  in  the  solution  of  problems,  it  lias  been  deemed  expedient  to  insert 
both  the  review  questions  and  problems  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  to  be  used  or  not  at 
the  discretion  of  the  instructor. 


From  the  Churchman. 

"  No  department  of  science  has  imder- 
gone  so  many  improvements  and  changes 
in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  as  that  of 
natural  philosophy.  So  many  and  so  im- 
portant have  been  the  discoveries  and 
inventions  in  every  branch  of  it  that 
everything  seems  changed  but  its  funda- 
mental principles.  Ganot  has  chapter 
upon  chapter  upon  subjects  that  were  not 
so  much  as  known  by  name  to  Olmsted  ; 
and  here  we  have  Ganot,  first  edited  by 
Professdr  Peck,  and  afterward  revised  by 
the  late  Mr.  Burbank  and  Mr.  Hanson.  No 
elementary  works  upon  philosophy  have 
been  superior  to  those  of  Ganot,  either  as 
popular  treatises  or  as  scientific  exposi- 
tions of  the  principles  of  physics,  and 
his  '  Traite  de  Physique '  has  not  only  had 
a  great  success  in  France,  but  has  been 
freely  used  in  this  country  in  the  prepa- 
ratiou  of  American  books  upon  the  sub- 


jects of  which  it  treats.  That  work  was 
intended  for  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, and  Mr.  Ganot  prepared  a  more 
elenientary  work  for  schools  and  acade- 
mies. It  is  as  scientifically  accurate  as 
the  larger  work,  and  is  characterized  by 
a  logical  development  of  scientific  princi- 
ples, by  clearness  of  definition  and  expla- 
nation, by  a  proper  distribution  of  sub- 
jects, and  by  its  admirable  engravings. 
We  here  have  Ganot's  work  enhanced  in 
value  by  the  labors  of  Professor  Peck  and  of 
Messrs.  Burbank  and  Hanson,  and  brought 
up  to  our  own  times.  Tlie  essential  char- 
acteristics of  Ganot's  work  have  been  re- 
tained, but  much  of  the  book  lias  been 
rewritten,  and  many  new  cuts  have  been 
introduced,  made  necessary  by  the  prog- 
ress of  scientific  discovery.  The  short 
reviews,  the  questions  on  the  text,  and 
the  ]irol)lems  given  for  solution  are  ilesir- 
able  additions  to  a  work  of  this  kind,  and 
will  give  the  book  increased  popularity. " 


34 


THB  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


FAMILIAR    SCIENCE. 

Norton  &  Porter's  First  Book  of  Science. 

Sets  forth  the  principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Astronomy,  Chemistiy,  Physiology, 
and  Geology,  on  the  catechetical  plan  for  primary  classes  and  beginners. 

Chambers's  Treasury  of  Knowledge. 

Progressive  lessons  upon  — first,  common  tilings  which  lie  most  immediately  around 
us,  and  first  attract  the  attention  of  the  young  mind ;  second,  connnon  objects  from  the 
mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  manufactured  articles,  and  miscellaneous 
substances  ;  third,  a  systematic  view  of  nature  imder  the  various  sciences.  May  be 
used  as  a  reader  or  text-boolc. 

Monteith's  Easy  Lessons  in  Popular  Science. 

This  book  combines  within  its  covers  more  attractive  features  for  tlie  study  of  science 
by  children  than  any  other  book  published.  It  is  a  reading  book,  spelling  book,  com- 
position book,  drawing  book,  geography,  history,  book  on  botany,  zoology,  agricul- 
ture, manufactures,  commerce,  and  natural  philosophy.  All  these  subjects  are  presented 
in  a  simple  and  effective  style,  such  as  would  be  adopted  by  a  good  teacher  on  an 
excursion  with  a  class.  The  class  are  supposed  to  be  taking  excursions,  with  the  help 
of  a  large  pictorial  chart  of  geography,  wliich  can  be  suspended  before  them  in  tlie 
school-room.  A  key  of  the  chart  is  inserted  in  every  copy  of  the  book.  With  this 
book  the  science  of  common  or  familiar  things  can  be  taught  to  beginners. 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 

Norton's  First  Book  in  Natural  Philosophy. 
Peck's  Elements  of  Mechanics. 

A  suitable  introduction  to  Bartlett's  higher  treatises  on  Mechanical  Philosophy,  and 
adequate  in  itself  lor  a  complete  academical  course. 

Bartlett's  Analytical  Mechanics. 
Bartlett's  Acoustics  and  Optics. 

A  complete  system  of  Collegiate  Philosophy,  by  Prof.  W.  H.  0.  Bartlett,  of  West 
Point  Military  Academy. 

Steele's  Physics. 
Peck's  Ganot. 

GEOLOGY. 

Page's  Elements  of  Geology. 

A  volume  of  Cliambers's  Educational  Course.  Practical,  simple,  ar"^  'eminently 
calculated  to  make  tlie  study  interesting. 

Steele's  Geology. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Porter's  First  Book  of  Chemistry. 
Porter's  Principles  of  Chemistry. 

The  above  are  widclv  known  as  tlie  productions  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  scientific 
men  of  America  The"^  extreme  simidiclty  in  the  method  of  presenting  the  science,  while 
exhaustively  treated,  lias  excited  universal  commendation. 

Gregory's  Chemistry  (Organic  and  Inorganic).     2  vols. 

The  science  exhaustively  treated.     For  colleges  and  medical  students. 

Ste.ele's  Chemistry. 

36 


THB  NATIONAL  SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SOHOOL-BOOKS. 

NATURAL    SCIENCE  — Coftfwiicd. 

BOTANY. 

Wood's  Object-Lessons  in  Botany. 
Wood's  American  Botanist  and  Florist. 
Wood's  New  Class-Book  of  Botany. 

The  standard  text-l)ooks  of  the  United  States  in  this  department.  In  style  they  are 
simple,  popular,  and  lively  ;  in  arrangement,  easy  and  natural ;  in  description,  graphic 
and  scientific.  The  Tables  for  Analysis  are  reduced  to  a  perfect  system.  They  include 
the  flora  of  the  whole  Unit»id  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  are  well  adapted 
to  the  regions  west. 

Wood's  Descriptive  Botany. 

A  complete  flora  of  all  plants  growing  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Wood's  Illustrated  Plant  Record. 

A  simple  form  of  blanks  for  recording  observations  in  the  field. 

Wood's  Botanical  Apparatus. 

A  portable  trunk,  containing  drying  press,  knife,  trowel,  microscope,  and  tweezers, 
and  a  cojjy  of  Wood's  "  Plant  Record,"  —  the  collector's  complete  outfit. 

Willis's  Flora  of  New  Jersey. 

The  most  useful  book  of  reference  ever  published  for  collectors  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  It  contains  also  a  Botanical  Directory,  with  addresses  of  living  American 
botanists. 

Young's  Familiar  Lessons  in  Botany. 

Combining  simplicity  of  diction  with  some  degree  of  technical  and  scientific  knowl- 
edge, lor  intermediate  classes.     Specially  adapted  for  the  Southwest. 


Wood  &  Steele's  Botany. 


See  page  33. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Pendleton's  Scientific  Agriculture. 

A  text-book  for  colleges  and  scliools  ;  treats  of  the  following  topics :  Anatomy  and 
Pliysiology  of  Plants  ;  Agricultural  Meteorology  ;  Soils  as  related  to  Physics  ;  Chemistry 
of  the  Atmosphere  ;  of  Plants  ;  of  Soils  ;  Fertilizers  and  Natural  Manures  ;  Animal  Nu- 
trition, &c.  By  E.  M,  Pendleton,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  University  of 
Georgia. 


From  President  A.  D.  White,  Cornell 
University. 
**  Dear  Sir :  I  have  examined  your 
'  Text-book  of  Agricultural  Science,'  and  it 
seems  to  me  excellent  in  view  of  the  pur- 
pose it  is  intended  to  serve.  Many  of 
your  cliapters  interested  me  especially, 
and  all  parts  of  the  work  seem  tocombii'ie 
scientific  instruction  with  x)ractical  infor- 
mation in  proportions  dictated  by  sound 
common  sense." 


From  President  Robinson,  of  Brown 
University. 
"  It  is  scientific  in  method  as  well  as  in 
matter,  compreliensive  in  plan,  natural 
and  logical  in  order,  compact  and  lucid  in 
its  statements,  and  must  be  useful  both  as 
a  text-book  in  agricultural  colleges,  and 
as  a  hand-book  for  intelligent  planters  and 
farmers." 


a/ 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD   SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


LITERATURE. 

Gilman's  First  Steps  in  English  Literature. 

The  character  and  plan  of  this  exquisite  little  text-book  may  be  best  iinderstooa  irom 
an  analysis  of  its  contents  :  Introduction.  Historical  Period  of  Immature  English, 
with  Chart ;  Definition  of  Terms ;  Languages  of  Europe,  with  Chart ;  Period  of  Mature 
English,  with  Chart ;  a  Chart  of  Bible  Translations,  a  Bibliography  or  Guide  to  General 
Reading,  and  other  aids  to  the  student. 

Cleveland's  Compendiums.     3  vols.     12mo. 

English  Literature.  American  Literature. 

English  Literature  of  the  XIXth  Century. 

In  these  volumes  are  gathered  the  cream  of  the  literature  of  the  English-speaking 
people  for  the  school-room  and  the  general  reader.  Their  reputation  is  national.  More 
than  125,000  copies  have  been  sold. 

Boyd's  English  Classics.    6  vols.    Cloth.    12mo. 

SIilton's  Paradise  Lost.  Thomson?' s  Seasons. 

Young's  Night  Thoughts.  Pollok's  Course  of  Time. 

CowPERS  Task,  Table  Talk,  &c.    Lord  Bacon's  Essays. 

This  series  of  annotated  editions  of  great  English  writers  in  i^rose  and  poetry  is 
designed  for  critical  reading  and  parsing  in  schools.  Prof.  J.  R.  Boyd  proves  himself 
an  editor  of  high  capacity,  and  the  works  themselves  need  no  encomium.  As  auxiliary 
to  the  study  of  belles-lettres,  &c.,  these  works  have  no  equal. 

Pope's  Essay  on  Man.     16mo.  Paper. 
Pope's  Homer's  Iliad.     32mo.  Roan. 

The  metrical  translation  of  the  great  poet  of  antiquity,  and  the  matchless  "Essay  on 
the  Nature  and  State  of  Man,"  by  Alexander  Pope,  afford  superior  exercise  in  literature 
and  parsing. 


POLITICAL    ECONOMY. 

Champlin's  Lessons  on  Political  Economy. 

An  improvement  on  previous  treatises,  being  shorter,  yet  containing  everything 
essential,  with  a  view  of  recent  questions  in  finance,  &c.,  wkich  is  not  elsewhere 
found. 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD   SCHOOL-BOOKa. 

MODERN    LANGUAGES- 

A    COMPLETE    COURSE   IN    THE    GERMAN. 

By  James  H.  Worman,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Modem  Languages  in  the  Adeli)hi  Acad- 
<*my,  Brooklyn,  L.  I. 

Worman's  First  German   Book. 
Worman's  Second  German  Book. 
Worman's   Elementary   German  Grammar. 
Worman's   Complete   German   Grammar. 

Tliese  volumes  are  designed  for  intei-mediate  and  advanced  classes  respectively. 

Tliougli  following  tlie  same  general  method  with  "  Utto  "  (that  of  "Gaspey  "),  our 
author  differs  essentially  in  its  ap)jlication.  He  is  more  practical,  more  systematic 
more  accurate,  and  besides  inti'oduces  a  number  of  invaluable  features  wliicli  have 
never  before  been  combined  in  a  German  grammar. 

Among  other  things,  it  may  be  claimed  for  Professor  Worman  that  he  has  been  the 
first  to  introduce,  iu  an  American  text-book  for  learning  German,  a  system  of  analogy  and 
comparison  with  other  languages.  Our  best  teachers  are  also  enthusiastic  about  his 
methods  of  inculcating  the  art  of  speaking,  of  understanding  the  spoken  language,  of 
correct  pronunciation  ;  the  sensible  and  convenient  original  classirication  of  nouns  (in 
four  declensions),  and  of  irregular  verbs,  also  deserves  much  praise.  We  also  note  the 
use  of  heavy  type  to  indicate  etymological  changes  in  the  paradigms  and,  in  the  exer- 
cises, the  parts  wliich  specially  illustrate  i)receding  rules. 

Worman's  Elementary  German   Reader. 
Worman's   Collegiate  German   Reader. 

The  finest  and  most  judicious  compilation  of  classical  and  standard  German  literature. 
These  works  embrace,  progressively  an-anged,  selections  from  the  masterpieces  of 
Goethe,  Schiller,  Korner,  Seume,  Uhland,  Freiligrath,  Heine,  Schlegel,  Holty,  Lenau, 
Wieland,  Herder,  Lessing,  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Winkelmann,  Humboldt,  Ilanke, 
Raumer,  Menzel,  Gervinus,  &c.,  and  contain  complete  Goethe's  "  Iphigenie,"  Scliiller's 
"Jungfrau;"  also,  for  instructiori  in  modern  conversational  German,  Benedix's 
"  Eigensinn." 

There  are,  besides,  biographical  sketches  of  each  author  contributing,  notes,  explan- 
atory and  philological  (after  the  text),  grammatical  references  to  all  leading  grammars, 
as  well  as  the  editor's  own,  and  an  adequate  Vocabulary. 

Worman's  German  Echo. 

Worman's  German   Copy-Books,  3  Numbers. 

On  the  same  plan  as  the  most  approved  systems  for  English  penmanship,  with 
progressive  copies. 

chmutauqua  series. 
First  and  Second  Books  in  German. 

By  the  natural  or  Pestalozzian  System,  for  teaching  the  language  without  the  help 
of  the  Learner's  Vernacular.     By  James  H.  Worman,  A.  M. 

These  books  belong  to  the  new  Chautauqua  German  Language  Series,  and  are  in- 
tended for  beginners  learning  to  speak  German.  The  peculiar  features  .of  its  method 
are:  — 

1.  It  teaches  the  language  by  direct  appeal  to  illustrations  of  the  objects 
referred  to,  and  does  not -allow  tlic  student  to  guess  what  is  said,  lie  speaks  from  the 
first  hour  understaniiinijlii  ami  iwranitrJ ii.     Therefore, 

2.  Grammar  is  taught  both  analytically  and  synthetically  throughout  the 
course.  The  beginning  is  made  with  the  auxiliaries  of  tense  and  mood,  because  their 
kinship  with  the  English  makes  them  easily  intelligible  ;  then  follow  the  declensions  of 
nouns,  articles,  and  other  parts  of  speech,  always  systematically  arranged.  It  is  easy 
to  confuse  the  pui)il  by  giving  him  one  person  or  one  case  at  a  time.  This  i)ernicious 
practice  is  discarded.  Books  that  beget  unsystematic  habits  of  thought  are  worse  thaft 
worthless. 

43 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD   SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


FRENCH. 

Worman's  First  Book  in  French. 

The  first  book  iu  the  coinpauiou  series  to  the  successful  German  Series  by  the  same 
author,  and  intended  tor  those  wishing  to  speafc  French.  The  peculiar  features  of  Pro 
fessor  Worman's  new  method  are  :  — 

1.  The  French  language  is  taught  without  the  help  of  English. 

2.  It  appeals  to  pictorial  illustrations  for  the  names  of  objects. 

3.  The  learner  speaks  from  the  first  hour  wnder standingly. 

4.  Grammar  is  taught  to  prevent  missteps  in  composition. 

5.  The  laws  of  the  language  are  taught  analytically  to  make  them  the  learner's  own 

inferences  (=  deductions). 

6.  Rapidity  of  progress  by  dependence  upon  association  and  contrasts. 

7.  Strictly  graded  lessons  and  conversations  on  familiar,  interesting,  and  instructive 

topics,  providing  the  words  and  idioms  of  every-day  life. 

8.  Paradigms  to  give  a  systematic  treatment  to  variable  inflections. 

9.  Heavy  type  for  inflections,  to  make  the  eye  a  help  to  the  mind. 

10.     Hair  line  type  for  the  silent  letters,  and  links  for  words  to  be  connected,  in  order 
to  teach  an  accurate  pronunciation. 

Worman's  French  Echo. 

This  is  not  a  mass  of  meaningless  and  parrot-like  phrases  thrown  together  for 
a  tourist's  use,  to  bewilder  him  when  in  the  presence  of  a  Frenchman. 

The  "  Echo  de  Paris  "  is  a  strictly  progressive  conversational  book,  beginning  with  sim- 
ple phrases  and  leading  by  frequent  repetition  to  a  mastery  of  the  idioms  and  of  the 
every-day  language  used  in  business,  on  travel,  at  a  hotel,  in  the  chit-chat  of 
society. 

It  presupposes  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  language,  such  as  may  be  acquired 
from  the  First  French  Book  by  Professor  Worman,  and  furnishes  a  running  French 
text,  allowing  the  learner  of  course  to  find  the  meanmg  of  the  words  (in  the  appended 
Vocabulary),  and  forcing  him,  by  the  absence  of  English  in  the  text,  to  think  in 
French. 


Cher  Monsieur  Worman, —Vous  me 
deraandezmon  opinion  sur  votre  "  Echo  de 
Paris"  et  quel  usage  j'en  fais.  Je  ne 
saurais  mieux  vous  repondre  qu'en  repro- 
duisant  une  lettre  que  j'ecrivais  derniere- 
ment  a  un  coUegue  qui  etait,  me  disait-il, 
"  bien  fatigue  de  ces  insipides  livres  de 
dialogues. " 

"  Vous  ne  connaissez  done  pas,"  lui 
disais-je,  "  'I'Echo  de  Paris,'  edite  par  le 
Professor  Worman?  C'est  un  veritable 
tresor,  merveilleusement  adapte  au  devel- 
opperaent  de  la  conversation  familiere  et 
pratique,  telle  qu'on  la  veut  aujourd'hui. 
Get  excellent  livre  met  successivement  en 
scfene,  d'une  maniere  vive  et  interessante. 


toutes  les  circonstances  possibles  de  la  vie 
ordinaire.  Voyez  I'immense  avantjige 
il  vous  transporte  en  France  ;  du  premier 
mot,  je  m'imagine,  et  mes  eleves  avec  moi, 
que  nous  sommes  a  Paris,  dans  la  rue,  sur 
une  place,  dans  une  gare,  dans  un  salon, 
dans  une  chambre,  voire  meme  k  la  cui- 
sine ;  je  parte  comme  avec  des  Fran^ais  ; 
les  eleves  ne  songent  pas  a  traduire  de 
I'anglais  pour  me  repondre  ;  ils  pensent 
en  frangais  ;  ils  sont  Frangais  pour  le 
moment  par  les  yeux,  par  I'oreille,  par  la 
pensee.  Quel  autre  livre  pourrait  produire 
cette  illusion?  ..." 

Votre  tout  devoue, 

A.  DE  ROUGEMONT. 


Illustrated  Language  Primers. 

French  and  English.  German  and  English. 

Spanish  and  English. 

The  names  of  common  objects  properly  illustrated  and  arranged  in  easy  lessons. 

Pujol's  Complete  French  Class-Book. 

Offers  in  one  volume,  methodically  arranged,  a  complete  French  course  —  usually 
embraced  in  series  of  from  five  to  twelve  books,  including  the  bulky  and  expensive 
lexicon.  Here  are  grammar,  conversation,  and  choice  literature,  selected  from  the 
best  French  authors.  Each  branch  is  thoroughly  handled  ;  and  tlie  student,  liaving 
diligently  completed  the  course  as  prescribed,  may  consider  himself,  without  further 
application,  au  fait  iu  the  most  polite  and  elegant  language  of  modern  timeg. 

id 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


M 

■ 

HHHM 

m 

liilin^H^iiiitjil 

S^kt;; 

\^^mm 

i^^ 

^w'^^W^^^ 

I^H 

Eilp^J^EI^ 

^jj(jBK^^^^^-''^°°° 

■T'Tj^l  v\  ^^ 

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^^S 

Br^^^pHt 

Mm 

ffi    1        T'-^ 

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GREEK. 

Scarborough's  First  Lessons  in  Greek. 

A  new  two-term  text-book,  with  copious  notes  and  references  to  the  Grammars  of 
Goodwin  and  Hadley,  and  an  adequate  Vocabulary.  Designed  as  an  Elementary  Drill- 
book  on  the  inflections  and  syntax  of  the  Greek  language. 

I.  These  Lessons  embrace  all  the  essential  points  of  the  Greek  etymology  and  syn- 
tax, and  are  sufficient  to  introduce  the  learner  to  Goodwin's  Greek  Reader,  Xenophon's 
Anabasis,  or  similar  Greek. 

II.  The  notes  and  references  are  full  enough  in  every  particular  to  give  the 
student  a. thorough  knowledge  of  the  rudimentary  forms.  Inflections,  and  principles  of 
the  Greek  languiige. 

III.  The  verb  is  introduced  early,  so  that  the  inflections  of  nouns  and  verbs 
are  given  side  by  side,  and  the  pupil  is  at  once  made  acquainted  with  complete 
sentences. 

IV.  As  the  student  advances,  the  princii)les  of  Greek  syntax  are  gradually  developed 
so  that  he  is  led  step  by  step  from  the  simple  to  the  more  complex. 

V.  The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  consists  of  seventy-eight  lessons, 
with  Gieek  and  English  lessons  alternating.  The  second,  of  selections  from  the 
Anabasis  (parts  of  the  1st  and  6th  chapters,  Bk.  I.)  and  the  Memorabilia  (the  Choice  of 
Hercules,  Bk.  II.,  chapter  1). 

VI.  Tlie  book  is  sufficient  for  all  pxirposes  in  rudimentary  instruction. 


From  The  Religious  Herald,  Hartford,  Ct. 
"  We  are  highly  pleased  witli  this  ele- 
mentary work.  Tlie  eighty-five  lessons  of 
pai-t  first  may  well  be  taken  in  fifteen  to 
twenty  weeks,  and  part  second  may  be 
pursued  to  advantage,  or  the  scholar  may 
go  directly  from  the  first  part  to  the  Ana- 
basis. The  arrangement  of  lessons  is 
good,  which  the  teacher  will  employ  at 
his  discretion  so  as  to  secure  the  most 
efficient  work  of  his  classes." 

"  I  have  examined  Professor  Scarbo- 
rough's '  First  Lessons  in  Greek '  with 
gome  care,  and  am    nmch  interested  in 


the  book.  It  is  clear  and  accurate,  de- 
velopes  the  subject  naturally  and  easily 
and  is  handsomely  printed.  The  methods 
of  a  practical  teacher  are  everywhere 
seen."  Wm.  G.  Frost, 

Professor  of  Greek,  Oberlin  College,  Ohio. 

"I  have  examined  Professor  Scarbo- 
rough's '  First  Lessons  in  Greek '  with 
much  care.  I  am  exceedingly  well  i)leased 
with  tlie  work  and  think  it  in  every  way 
well  a(laT)ted  to  the  uses  for  which  it  is 
intended. " 

Wm     II.    TlBBALL. 

Principal  of  Poland  (0),  Seminary. 


47 


VB  30296' 


V!55963 


BIS 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


